OUTLINES 



THEORY AND ART 



TEACHING 



u 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



Shelf. .L3lQ A b' 

UNITED STATES OP AMERICA, "^"^'l 



V 



OUTLINES 



Study and Instruction 



THEORY AND ART 



TEACHING 



U 



ix 



DANIEL PUTNAM 

Of the Michigan State Normal School 



YPSILANTI : 

COMMERCIAL rUHLISHlNG HOUSE. 

1883. 







PREFACE. 



These outlines are products of some reading and study, and of some 
observation and experience while teaching in various grades .of schools, and 
especially while aiding in the instruction of teachers in tlie Normal School 
and in other places. 

The course is designed to meet the wants of students such as usually 
seek the advantages of normal teaching and training. 

No attempt has been made to formulate a system of educational philoso- 
phy, or to produce anything original, or new to advanced students. Ideas, 
truths, and principles have been sought and freely appropriated from any 
fruitful source. 

The printing is not for the purpose of publication, but for personal con- 
venience and the convenience of classes. 

It is in contemplation to publish, at an early day, a tolerably full manual 
upon the same subject. 



Michiyan State Normal School, 
Jan., 1883. 



COPYKIGHT, 18S3, BY DANIEL PUTNAM. 



OUTLINES 

OF 

Study and Instruction 



()i 



I. 

Introduction. 



1. Art has usually preceded Science in the order of 
human development, and in the progress of civilization. 
This is the order of history and of original investigation. 

2. When a Science and an Art are correlated, the 
order of study for mature minds is 

(a). The Science. — Theory. 
{/>). The Art. —Practice. 

3. Practice only, without a study of principles, produces 
copyists, workers by rules, artisans. 

4. Science, the study of Theory alone, leaves us without 
practical skill, without training. 

5. The best results, in all departments of human 
activity, come from the proper combination of Science and 
Art. 



4 OUTLINES OF 

6. The Art of Teaching (Education in one sense) has 
been long practiced. The Science is only in a formative 
condition. 

7. The Science may be investigated and studied by 
(a). Induction. — By experiment and observation. 

(^). Deduction. — By reasoning from the known laws 
of mind and from the nature of knowledge. 



II. 

What Education is as a Work, Etc. 

1. Preparation for any work is determined, as to extent 
and character, by one's conception of the nature of the work. 

2. The Child. — Condition in respect to (a) body, {If) 
mind, (<:) knowledge, {d) language, etc. 

3. The Man. — Condition in same respects. 

4. The child, transformed into the man, has been 
{a). Developed. 

{d). Trained. 
(c). Instructed. 
A jaork has been wrought upon him and he has passed 
through a process. 

5. The work and process have embraced 

{a). Physical Education. 
{l>). Intellectual Education. 
{c). Moral and Religious Education. 
{(i). Industrial Education. 
The work, great and complex ; the field wide. 
G. The Agents and Agencies in performing the work 
have been many. 

{a). The home, parents, friends. 
(/'). The church, religious teachers. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 5 

(c). Society, books, papers, etc. 
(^), Institutions, government, etc. 
(<?). Occupations, business, etc. 

7. Province and work of the Public School and the 
teacher : 

{a). Physical education to a limited extent only. 

{/?). Intellectual education mainly. 

{c). Moral education considerably. 

{d). Industrial, not largely. 

8. Unreasonable demands upon the schools and 
teachers. 

Unjust criticisms upon them in respect to {a) morals, 
{3) practical skill, etc., {c) aversion to manual labor, etc. 

9. Definition. — As a work and process^ education is the 
harmonious development ; the proper training ; and the right 
instructing of the whole human being. 

10. The Result. — The production of power by develop- 
ment J the creation of habits and skill by training ; ajtd the 
securing of intelligence and virtue by proper instruction. 



III. 

What Education is as a Science and Art. 

1 As a subject of study, the Science or Theory of Educa- 
tion must include a knowledge of 

{a). All the powers and faculties of the human 
being. 

{b). The Laws or Conditions which govern the 
right development and proper training of these powers 
and faculties. 



O OUTLINES OF 

(f). The means, methods ■ and apphances by 
which the work of development, trauiing and instruct- 
ing is best carried forward. 

2. The Art of teaching is the practical application of 
the i)rincii)les of the science to the work of education. 

IV. 

Theory or Science. 

The powers and faculties of the human being. 

1. Methods of study and investigation : 

(a). Observation and study of one's self. 
{/?). Observation and study of others, especially of 
children. 

{{■). Study of books upon the subject. 

2. Man is a complex being, having 

{c7). A body. — A physical nature. 
{/>). A soul. — A mental, moral and spiritual nature. 
These are intimately related. Neither can be thoroughly 
understood without some knowledge of the other. 

They are mutually dependent and mutually helpful. 
o. Some general knowledge of Physiology is pre-supposed. 
The nervous system is so intimately connected with mental 
action that it demands special attention. 

{A). The general, cerebro-spinal, system con- 
sists of 

{a). The Brain, 
(/y). The Spinal Cord. 

{(•). The Nerves, — smaller cords of nerve substance, 
(i). Composition and structure of nerve substance. 
{a). White, minute fibers. 
(^). Grey, cells or corpuscles. 
(2). Origin and termination of the nerves. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. < 

[B). The Sympathetic System of nerves. . Its rela- 
tion to the vital organs and processes.' 

Less intimately associated with mental processes. 

[C). Relation of the Cerebro-spinal Nerves to 
Sensation in general. 

{a). Impressions upon the nerves. 

{b). Transmission. — Comparison of the telegraph 
- and telephone. 

{c). The result. — Sensations, so-called. 

The impression upon the bsdily or^an is to be earefullj' distinguished 
from the knowledge gained by the mind. 

[D). Nerves of Special Sensation, and their general 
functions. The senses. 

{a). Taste. — Organs and location, — office. 

{b). Smell. — Organs and location, — office. 

(r). Touch. — Organs widely distributed, — offices, — 
higher in rank than Taste and Smell. 

[d). Hearing. — Organs and location, — office, impor- 
tance and value. 

{e). Sight. — Organs and location, — office, — highest in 

rank and value of the senses. 

The special knowledge derived through each sense will be further 
considered in connection with suggestions in relation to its cultivation 
and training. 



V. 

1. The Soul or Mind in man is that which knows, feels, 
and wills. Its existence is as evident as the existence of 
matter. 

[a). Matter is known by its (pialities through the 
senses. 



8 OUTLINES Of 

(^). The Soul is known by its activities through con- 
sciousness. 

For our purpose it is unnecessary to make any distinction between the 
terms Soul and Mind. 

2. The Activities of the Soul are manifested in different 
forms or directions ; — activities which result in 

{a). Knowledge. These are named Intellect or 
the Intellectual Faculties. 

{d). Feelings, so called. These are named Sensi- 
bilities. 

(r). Willing, determining, etc. These are named 
the Will. 

{d}. Moral Ideas, etc. These are named the Moral 
Nature. 

3, Some terms defined. 

{a). A Faculty is an original or native energy or 
ability of the Soul to do. 

{l>). Power denotes both original and acquired 
ability of mind. It is used also to denote the energies 
of the body. 

(r). Capacity denotes the susceptibility of the,. Soul 
to be affected and influenced ; also to receive and con- 
tain. 
Faculty, power and capacity are often used with essentially the same 
meaning. 

(d). Phenomenon (plu. Phenomena) denotes any- 
thing which really appears either to the senses or to 
consciousness. 

{<?). Consciousness is the " necessary knowledge 
which the mind has of its own activities and states," or it 
is the faculty by which the mind knows its own activities and 
states. 

Consciousness, strictly speaking, is a state of the mind, but It is 
Bjogt conveniently spoken of as a, faculty. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. V 

VI. 

The Intellectual Faculties. 

1. The knowing faculties of the soul are concerned in the 
{a). Acquisition, presentation, and perception of 

knowledge. 

{/)). Retention, reproduction and representation of 

knowledge. 

(c). Elaboration, comparison, and classification of 
knowledge. 



The Acquisitive, Presentative and Perceptive 
Faculties. 

1. Condition and position of a young child. 

In a condition of weakness and ignorance, with the ner- 
vous organization previously described, the child is placed in 
the midst of an external world of objects and influences. He 
has no choice of location or surroundings, and little power to 
resist their influences. 

"2. Sensation. These external objects, by contact and in 
other ways, affect and impress the nervous system, more par- 
ticularly the nerves of special sensation. These impressions 
or influences upon these nerves cause states of mind, or 
changes in the state of mind, feelings. These feelings or 
states of mind are called Sensations. 

The term sensation i.s often employed to denote botli the bodily affection 
and mental state. 

3. First kind of knowledge. The cognition of these 
feelings, states or changes of state of mind, by consciousness, 
must be the first act of knowing, and the sensations them- 
selves the first knowledfie. 



10 OUTLINES OF 

4. First step in education. The exercises of mind 
in cognizing and distinguishing sensations is the first step in 
the process of development and training. 

5. Conditions necessary to the production of sensations, 
{a) mind to be affected, {/f) objects to affect, {c) medium of 
communication. 

Id tlic earliest stages of life, sensations do not necessarily suggest exter- 
nal objects or causes. 

6. Perception. Simple sensations are, in the process of 
mental development, soon followed or attended by an activity 
of mind by which we become acquainted with the external 
world. The soul, through the senses, cognizes objects outside 
of itself. This act is perception proper or sense-perception. 

7. Second kind of knowledge. Consciousness in- 
forms us of this new kind of activity and of its resulting 
knowledge. The pictures, ideas, or notions of external things 
are called percepts. These constitute a second kind of 
knowledge, much higher in nature than mere sensations. 

S. Second step in education. The proper develop- 
ment and training of the perceptive faculties is the second and 
most important step in the work and process of education. 

9. Conditions of perception. 

{a). A perceiving mind. 

(/;). External objects. 

{c). Proper and sound organs of sense. 

{d.) Favorable conditions and surroundings. 

10. The objects of perception are qualities of 
matter. 

[a). A quality is that in any substance which makes it 
what it is. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 11 

{d). Qualities are divided into 

(i). Primary or necessary. (2). Secondary or acci- 
dental. 
Other and more exhaustive divisions are also made. 

11. Intuition, Intuitive ideas, truths, etc. 

In consequence of knowledge gained through conscious- 
ness and perception, the mind cognizes (perceives or con- 
ceives) certain simple or primary ideas and certain simple 
or primary truths. 

(a). The knowledge of matter, as necessarily extended 
is followed by the idea of space. 

((^). The knowledge of the succession of thoughts or 
events is followed by the idea of duration and of time. 

{c). The observation of change is followed by the 
idea of cause. 

{d). The ideas of personal identity, of number, 
of right, and some others have a similar origin. 

(e). Mathematical and other axioms are examples of 
intuitively perceived truths. 

12. Definition. Intuition is the faculty by which we 
acquire certain simple, primary ideas, and perceive certain 
simple, primary truths. 

The term Intuition is of course employed here in a restricted sense and 
for convenience sake. 

13. Some criteria of primary truths. 

(a). They are simple, that is, they cannot be resolved 
into other truths. 

{d). They are not derived from observation or expe- 
rience, but are necessary conditions of these. 

(c). They do not admit of proof, because nothing 
more evident can- be conceived. 



OUTLINES OF 



(</). They are necessary, that is, a denial of them 
involves an absurdity. 

[e). They are universal, that is, we cannot conceive 
of any time or place where they are not true. 

u. Summary and Definitions, 

The faculties thus far considered are variously named : 
Acquisitive, because the knowledge derived by and through 
them is the basis of all subsequent attainments ; Presenta- 
tive, because the senses seem to present knowledge directly 
to the mind ; Perceptive, because the activity of each one 
of them may properly be called perception. 

(1. Consciousness.— The faculty of 
inner or self perception. 

2. The Senses. — The faculties of exter- 
-{ nal perception. 

Intuition. — The faculty which per- 
ceives simple, primary ideas and 
t^ truths etc 



The Perceptive 
Faculties. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 13 



VIII. 

The Representative and Reproductive Faculties. 

1. The mind is able to form mental pictures, notions, 
ideas of objects of knowledge and thought when these are 
not present. These pictures, notions, etc., are, in a certain 
sense, representatives of the objects. 

The ability of the soul to form and hold before itself pic- 
tures, notions, etc. of objects not present, is called the 
Representative Faculty. 

{a). The objects, having never been seen or, in any 
way known, may be brought before the mind by descrip- 
tions or narrations. 

(/-'). The objects having been seen or, in some way 
previously known, the knowledge of them may be repro- 
duced or recalled by memory. 

{c). The objects may be simply products of thought, 
of which notions are formed while the mind is at work. 

2. Real Representation. In all these cases the rep- 
resentation is to be truthful, accurate, real. 

The ability of the mind to form real representations is 
called the faculty of Conception. 

The mental products of this faculty are called Concepts 
and the act is also called conception. 

The term couceptiou, as applied to a special facult3-, is used iu a 
restricted sense, and is open to objections. Conception enters into nearly 
all mental processes. 



14 OUTLINES OF 

3. Third Step in Education. The development and 
training of the power to form [a) accurate, {/>) distinct, and 
(c) vivid concepts. 

4. Ideal Representation. The mind has ability to 
form pictures, notions, etc , of an ideal character, usually 
complex, not representing any single, real, known object. 

The ability of the mind to form ideal representations is 
called the faculty of Imagination. 

5. Illustrations of the products of the imagination are 
found in 

{a). Historical and other paintings. 

(/^) Some works of fiction. 

(f). Some forms of poetry. 

{d). Hypotheses, both scientific and other. 

{e). Many v/orks of art. 

G. The imagination creates forms, combinations, group- 
ings, etc. Material is supplied by other faculties. 

The term Fancy is often used as synonymous with Imagination. 
It is better to make a distinction. 

(a). Imagination, proper, creates, etc., within the limits of possi- 
bility, — is subject to law. 
(b), Fancy creates, etc., without regard to possibility or law. 

7. Education, etc. The development and training of 
the imagination begin early in connection with conception. 
It is important in some studies of childhood, but its full 
development comes later. 

8. Memory,— Reproductive Faculty. 

{a). The Retention of knowledge is accompanied by 
no conscious mental activity. Theories upon this subject 
belong to the province of purely speculative philosophy. 
Retention is usually considered one of the functions of 
Memory. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 15 

{d). Memory is the faculty which reproduces or recalls 
into consciousness what has been previously known or expe- 
rienced. 

Every perfect act of memory involves also an act of representation. The 
two acts can hardly be separated. 

(r). Two forms of the process of reproduction are observ- 
able, 

(i). Absolute or instantaneous reproduction. 
The desired object is recalled by a single mental effort, with no con- 
scious intervening steps. 

(2). Reproduction by association and suggestion. 

This reproduction is accompanied by conscious intervening stf ps, 
and is accomplished by more than one mental effort. 

{d). Association and Suggestion are governed by 

laws or conditions, called laws of association. 

As expressed, these laws are statements of observed facts in respect to 
mental action, or deductions from such facts. 

They are usually divided into 
(i). Primary or objective. 
(2). Secondary or subjective. 

{e.) Primary or Objective Laws. 

(i). Law of Resemblance or Similarity. 

" Similar thoughts and things are mutually sug- 
gestive." 

(2). Law of Contrast. 

"Contrasted thoughts and things are mutually 
suggestive." 

(3). Law of Contiguity. 

" Thoughts and things associated in time or place 
are mutually suggestive." 



16 OUTLINES OF 

(4). Law of Special Relationships. 

" Thoughts and things related to each other as 
{a). Cause and Effect, 
id). Whole and Parts, 
{c). Substance and Attribute, 
(i^). Sign and Thing Signified, etc., are mutually 
suggestive." 

(/). Secondary or Subjective Laws. 

These laws, so called, are rather statements of subjective states or exter- 
nal conditions which influence and modify the action and power of the pri- 
mary laws. 

(i). Law of Attention. 

Attention is mental activity turned and held 'by an act of the will, 
in a particular direction or upon a particular object. The attention 
of young children is, to a certain extent, involuntary. 

Power to retain and reproduce knowledge de- 
pends greatly upon the degree of attention bestowed 
in acquiring. 

(2). Law of Repetition. 

The power to retain and reproduce some kinds of 
knowledge is largely increased by repetition or 
reiteration. 

Reiteration is simply a frequent reproduction of the same 
or a similar act, state, etc., and falLs under the head of 
similarity. 

(3). Law of Lapse of Time. 

The power to reproduce knowledge is usually 
weakened by lapse of time. 

(4). Law of Associated Feeling. 

Power to retain and reproduce knowledge is 
greatly increased by associating some strong feeling 
with its acquisition. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 17 

(5). Law of Natural Mental Peculiarities. 

For reasons not known, most minds reproduce 
some kinds of knowledge much more readily than 
other kinds. 

In order to deal justly with children, this fact needs to be 
constantly kept in mind. 

(6). Law of State of Mind, and State of 
Body. 

The state of mind, and also the state of body, at 
the time of acquisition, affect greatly the power to 
retain and re])roduce knowledge. 

(7). Law of Habit. 

Habits created by occupations, or professions, 
or other circumstances, influence the powers of 
retention and reproduction. 

(S). Law of Deiiniteness and Clearness. 

That knowledge which is most definitely and 
clearly comprehended is best retained and most 
readily reproduced. 

9. Relation of the Memory to the other facul- 
ties; characteristics, etc. 

(a). The memory is the servant of the other faculties. 

(/-'). It should be cultivated for efficient service, and 
not for its own sake. 

(c). The most important characteristics of a service- 
able memory are 

(1). Susceptibility. 

This is strictly a characteristic of the mind in general rather 
than of any special faculty. 

(2). Tenacity. The power to hold firmly that 
which is committed to its keeping. 



18 OUTLINES OF 

{3). Readiness. The ability to respond imme- 
diately to any demand. 

10. Fourth Step in Education. 

The proper development and training of the Memory. 
The activity of memory begins in the child very early, but its systematic 
training can commence only when the perceptive and conceptive faculties 
have acquired considerable power. 

11. Summary. 

fl. Conception. — Faculty of real rep- 
Representative I resentation. 

tTve of Concep-^-- Imagination. - Faculty of ideal 
tive Faculties. I representation. 

L3. Memory. Faculty of reproduction. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCI'ION. 19 



IX. 

The Elaborative Faculties, 

Called also Reasoning and Reflective. 

1. Convenient comparison between certain physical 
and mental activities, processes, and results. 

{a). Knowledge taken into the mind, as food into the 
stomach, in a crude form ; material of real knowledge, 
as food of real nutriment, etc. 

(<^). Various forms of mental activity exercised 
upon this material of knowledge, as various bodily 
organs exercise their functions upon food, etc. 

(c). Results in both cases, changes of form, digestion, 
re-arrangement, assimilation, etc., etc., and finally, pro- 
ducts of practical value to life. 

2. Real Knowing (true knowledge) consists essentially 
in discovering resemi^/anit'S, differences and relations. 

To secure such knowledge, there must be 

{a). Examination. — Analysis. 

{b^. Comparison. — Process of determining resem- 
blan-ces and differences. 



20 OUTLINES OF 

[f). Proper Arrangement.— Synthesis,— classifica- 
tion, — recognition of relations, etc. 

These processes are all complex, and any names employed to des- 
ignate the mental powers by which they are performed are open to 
objections, and must be understood in an obviously limited sense. 

3. Abstraction. In the processes of analysis, compar- 
ison, etc., it is often necessary to consider one quality or 
characteristic of an object apart from all others. 

This act of separating is called abstraction, and the men- 
tal power by which the act is done, is called the faculty 
of abstraction. 

4. Generalization. A common name is given to a num- 
ber of individuals or objects, on account of certain resem- 
blances, disregarding all points of difference. 

This act is called generalization, and sometimes the men- 
tal activity which performs it receives the same name. 

5. General names, terms, and concepts. 

By the processes of abstraction, generalization, and 
conception, the ideas indicated by general and abstract terms, 
such as man, animal, tree, virtue, etc., are formed. 

The power of the mind to form such ideas, notions, etc., 
is sometimes named Conception. 

6. Judgment. A Judgment, etc. 

Elaboration involves the comparison of percepts with percepts ; per- 
cepts with concepts ; concept;: with concepts ; partial concepts with total 
concepts ; attributes with objects ; etc., etc. 

The faculty which compares i)ercepts, concepts, etc., and 
affirms or denies an agreement between them, is, for con- 
venience, called Judgment. 

The mental product of the final act is called A Judg- 
ment. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 



21 



The product expressed in words is called a Proposition, 
and consists of a subject, predicate and copula. Ex. Snow 
is white. 

This kind of mental activity, in its simplest form, begins in the child 
at a very early period ; as early indeed as the material out of which judg- 
ments can be formed, is supplied. 

7. Reasoning, Reason, etc. 

Elaboration also includes processes by which, from certain arrange- 
ments and comparisons of knowledge already acquired, new knowledge is 
attained, or present knowledge is extended and enlarged. In these pro- 
cesses, which are called Reasoning, propositions are compared. 

The faculty which compares propositions, etc., and thus 
attains new or enlarged knowledge, is sometimes called 
Reason. 

It must be kept in mind that the term Reason is here employed in a 
sp'cial and limited sense, for convenience. 

{a). Inductive Reasoning. This is reasoning 
from particulars to generals ; from individuals to the 
class ; inferring a general rule or law from a number of 
particular cases, etc. 

The basis of this form of reasoning is a belief in the " uniformity 
of causation." 

{l>). Deductive Reasoning. This is reasoning 
from generals to particulars ; from the class to individ- 
uals ; from a general law to particular cases, etc. 

The basis of this form of reasoning is the belief that " whatever is 
true of a whole is true of all its parts " ; or " whatever is true of a 
class is true of whatever comes under the class " ; or " what is part of 
a part is part of the whole." 

{c). The Syllogism. Examples, etc. 
. (i). General form and nature. 
(2). Premises. Major, Minor. 
(3). Conclusion. 
(4). Some examples of fallacies. 



22 



OUTLINES OF 

{d). Demonstrative Reasoning is employed 
principally in pure mathematics, and deals chieflly 
with concepts and relations. The premises being ad- 
mitted its conclusions are inevitable. 

(<?). Practical or Probable Reasoning is em- 
ployed about actual things, and the affairs of every-day 
life. It makes use of evidences derived from 

(i). Analogy. Similarity of relations, etc. 

(2). Experience. General resemblance. 

(3). Testimony. Direct evidence of man. 

(4). Circumstances. Indirect evidence. 

(5). Hypothesis. Suppositions, etc. 

(/). Some Laws of Evidence. 

(i). Of direct testimony. 

[a). General credibility of the senses when 
in a normal condition. 

{b). General credibility of mankind when not 
' improperly influenced. 

{c). General uniformity in the power of 
motives. 

(2). Of indirect evidence. 

[a). The fact to be accounted for must be 
established by direct evidence. 

{b). The existence of the circumstances 
must be established by direct evidence. 

{c). The circumstances or the hypothesis 
based upon the circumstances, must fully 
account for the thing to be proved. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 23 

(c/). It must be shown that the thing to be 
proved can be accounted for by no other 
possible hypothesis, and by no other discover- 
able circumstances or conditions. 

8. Classification, or the proper and orderly arrange- 
ment of objects of knowledge and thought, includes three 
processes. 

((?). Analysis. A complete and careful examination 
of the objects to be classified. 

{^). Abstraction. The selection and separation 
of certain common characteristics or qualities as bases of 
classes. 

(r). Generalization. The placing together and 
covering by common names the objects which agree in 
respect to the selected bases. 



9. Summary of Elaborative Faculties. 

(a). Abstraction. The ability to separate partic- 
ular qualities, etc., and to consider them ; with concep- 
tion to form general concepts, notions, etc. 

{i>). Judgment. The ability to compare concepts, 
and to affirm or deny their agreement. 

(r). Reason. The ability to arrange and compare 
propositions, and to reach conclusions by a process 
called reasoning. 

Ij.ed iu a Special or Limited Sense. 



24 OUTLINES OF 

10. General Summary of the Intellectual Faculties. 

fl. Consciousness. 

{a). Presentative ^ , ^^^ g^^^^^^ 

Faculties, i j . ■^■ 

[o. Intuition. 

fl. Conception. 

{/>). Representative and^^ Imagination. 

Reproductive Faculties. i g Memory. 

fl. Abstraction. 

(0. Elaborative _j , judgment. 

Faculties. (^3 Reason. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 25 



X. 

The Sensibilities. 

1. Most, possibly all, acts of knowing are accompanied or 
closely followed by states or conditions of mind called feel- 
ings. These feelings are indefinable, but their existence 
is known 

(a). In one's self, by consciousness. 
{d). In others, by bodily appearances. 
The Conditions, Circumstances, causes which 
produce them may also be learned. 

2. The capacity or susceptibility of the soul to feel is 
called Sensibility, 

The various feelings are usually spokeu of as Sensibilities. 

3. The sensibilities are to be carefully distinguished from 
the sensitiveness of the body and from sensations. 

4. The study of the sensibilities is rendered difficult by 

(a). The great number of them. 
{l>). Their complex character in many cases, 
(r). The impossibility of making a satisfactory class- 
ification. 

5. A knowledge of the feelings, and of the means and 
methods of producing, controlling, and allaying them, 

is of the very highest importance to teachers and parents 
from the fact that they are 

[a). The active or propelling forces in the soul. 



26 OUTLINES OF 

[b). The avenues through which the Will must be 
reached. 

{c). The indexes of the true state of the mind and of 
the real character of purposes and acts. 

6. In respect to origin, the mental feelings are 

{a). Instinctive. Spring from a natural impulse 
without reflection, and are, to a considerable extent, com- 
mon to man and some animals. 

(/'). Rational. Appear in consequence of thought 
and reflection, and are i)eculiar to man. 

{i). Mixed. Partly instinctive and partly rational. 



XI. 

Some DiYisions of the Sensibilities. 

1. Simple, Instinctive Emotions. 

These are feelings manifested by young children, and they 
differ very little in character from the feelings manifested by 
the young of some animals. 

{a). JoyOUSness. Manifested in sportiveness, frol- 
icsomeness, etc. 

{l>). JoylessneSS. Manifested by a dejected ap- 
pearance, disinclination to activity, etc. 

{c). Irritability. Manifested by ill-natured words 
and conduct, etc. 

These are only a few of many feelings spriiigiug mostly from bodily cou- 
ditions, and Intimately associated with the earliest sensations of childhood. 
In young; children, they are no indication of moral chai-acter. They are felt 
to some extent, at every period of life. 

2. Appetites. 

These are not properly sensibilities, but are placed here on account of 
their intimate connection with desires. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. li 

They are usually divided into 

{a). Natural or Native. These are regularly 
recurring " cravings of the animal nature " occasioned 
by some need. 

Among these are 

(i) Hunger, and (2) Thirst. 
{/'). Acquired or Artificial. These are cravings 
produced by habits, and differ from natural appetites in 
several important particulars. 

(i). They are not regularly recurring. 
(2). Their strength usually increases with grati- 
fication. 

(3). Their vigor is not usually diminished by age. 
{4). They are not necessary to the life or hap- 
piness of mankind. 

(5). Their creation and gratification involve con- 
siderations of moral right and wrong. 

Among these are ajjpetites for (i) Intoxicating 
Liquors, (2) Tobacco, (3) Opium and other Nar- 
cotics. 

{c). Relation of Teachers to the subject of 
appetites. 

(i). To teach by example and precept the proper 
control of natural appetites. 

(2). To abstain personally from the creation and 
gratification of injurious artificial appetites. 

(3). To teach, at proper times and by proper 
methods, the efTfects of the gratification of injurious 
artificial appetites upon both body and mind. 
Natural appetites are necessary to individual well-being, and to the per- 
petuity of the race. Their proper gratification involves no question of 
morals. But they are blind forces, and can never with safetj-, be allowed 
to govern a rational being. Artificial appetites are seldom beneficial, and 
often dangerous. 



28 



OUTLINES OF 



3. Desires. 

Desires are cravings of the mind for real or supposed 
good. 

Aversion is the opposite of desire. Aversions are as various aiul 
numerous as desires, bat as they are readily understood from the relation of 
opposition, it is unnecessary to give them separate consideration. 

The term good, as here emploj'ed, has no moral signification; but de- 
notes anything which will contribute, or which is expected to contribute, to 
happiness or enjoyment. 

Some of the most obvious are the desire for 

{a). Food, drink, etc. 

This comes in consequence of appetite and is closely related to it. 

(/-'). Continued Existence. 

This is partly instinctive, partly rational ; closely related to love 
of life, but does not always spring from it. 

[c). Knowledge. 

Both intuitive and rational. 

(^/). Society. 

At first, intuitive ; later,largely rational. 

{(•). Happiness. 

It is doubtful whether this should 43e regarded as a qMcific desire. 
It may be a general desire of which all others are only particular 
forms. 

(/) Esteem, Approbation, etc. 

Both intuitive and rational. Uses and abuses considered. 

[g). Superiority. 

This is to be carefully distinguished from the desire of power. 
Its relation to enmlation considered. Uses and dangers. 

(//). Power, Authority. 

Early manifestations ; proper and improper direction. 

(/). Acquisition of property. 

Legitimate direction ; abuses ; relation to the progress of 
society, etc. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 29 

(y). Complex feelings, into which either desire or 
aversion enters largely. 

(i). Hope. 
Composed of desire and expectation Condi- 
tions of a strong, or a weak hope Value of this 
feeling. 

(2). Despair. 
Desire with an absence of expectation. Condi- 
tions which increase or diminish the depth of this 
feeling. 

(3). Discouragement. 

Nature ; sources ; consequences. 

(4). Apprehension, alarm, fear, dread, terror, 
etc. 

Nature; distinction between ; influence, etc. 

(/'). Knowledge of Desires specially impor- 
tant to teachers. 

The relation of desii-e to the Will, which will be indicated 
further on, makes it of special importance that all persons who are 
concerned in the control and direction of children, should under- 
stand the nature of the various desires, something of their power, 
and the means by which the}' are excited and allayed. 

4. Affections. 

The affections are feelings of the mind directed toward 
other persons, or objects. 

There are strong objections to the use of the term qfcc!io>is to denote 
feelings of ill-will, but no other word has yet been generally accepted to 
take its place. 

Note-— I<"niotioi)s seem to exist in the soul without direction : desires to 
lie directed mainly toward one's self; affections, toward others. Desires 
and .affections are often very closely intermingle 1. 



30 OUTLINES OF 

Some classes of the affections : 

(A) "The Beneficent." Those having in view the 
good of their objects. 

Of the Beneficent Affections 

(i). The Domestic have reference to Home 
and Kindred. Among these are ((?) Parental, 
{/>) Filial, {c) Fraternal. 

These are partly natural and instinctive, partlj' rational and 
and moral. 

(2). The Social have reference to friends, 
country, etc. Among these are (a) Friendship, 
{d) Gratitude, (r) Patriotism. 

These are mostly, but not cntlrelj', rational and moral. 

(3) The Philanthropic have reference to man- 
kind without regard to kindred or country. Among 
these are {(?) Good-will to man as man, {/>) Pity, 
Compassion, Sympathy, etc. 

Some of these are natui-al and intuitive ; others, chiefly 
rational and moral. 

{B). " The Defensive." Those having in view 
self-defense, and the protection of others. Among these 
are [a) Resentment, and {/?) Indignation. 

The first prompts to self-defense, the second to the 
protection of others. 

These are usually, but improperly, classed among the "malev- 
olent" atfections. Care, however, must be taken in defining and 
properly limiting these feelings. 

They are natural and intuitive in their origin, but beyond a cer- 
tain limit are rational and moral. 

(C). The Malevolent. Those having in view ends 
Vvhich work evil, directly or indirectly, to their 
objects. 



32 OUTLINES OF 

(5). Among the elements of the beautiful in 
. objects are (a) form, (6) color, (r) symmetry, (j/) 
grouping, and {c) variety. 

(6). Some sounds and combinations of sounds 
are properly regarded as beautitul. 

(7). To cultivated minds, certain ideas and com- 
binations of ideas are beautiful. 

(8) Poetry derives its beauty from the ideas 
expressed and from the rhythmic flow of words. 

(/>-). Emotions caused by the Sublime, 
Grand, etc. 

(i). Experiences of these feelings by one on the 
summit of a lofty mountain; at Niagara; gazing 
upon dark, heavy thunder-clouds, etc. 

(2). Obvious elements in the sublime, etc., are 
{a) power, (^) greatness of some kind. 

(3). Actions, ideas, etc., may be sublime as well 
as objects. 

(4). Fear, terror, etc , may be mingled with the 
emotions produced by the sublime. 

(r). Emotions occasioned by Wit, Humor, 
etc. 

(i). A great variety of these emotions, etc. 

(2). Surprise and incongruity among the impor- 
tant elements in the humorous, ludicrous, etc. 

(3). A tendency in wit, humor, etc., to descend. 

^4) Sarcasm, wit, etc., to be employed very spar- 
ingly in the school. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCI ION. 



33 



(^/). Relation of the Higher Emotions to 
Education, etc. 

(i). Good Taste in deportment, language, dress, 
etc., not only indicates character, but exerts a reflex 
influence as well as an influence over others. 

(2). The feelings produced by the Sublime, 
Grand, etc., are closely related to Reverence, 
Respect, etc., and are especially to be desired in the 
young. 

(3). The influence of the School and the Teacher 
should exert positive power in the culture of Taste, 
Reverence, etc. 



6. Summary of the Sensibihties. 



. . . ( (')• Joyousness, 

[a). Smiple, Intuitive Emotions. -] (2). Joyiessness, 

( (:{.) Irritability, etc. 



{/'). Api 



)etites. i 



r(l). Natural. 



( {n). Iluujjer, 
'( {/>). Tliirst, etc. 



(2^ Aennired i ^"^- ^''toxicatiug L 
\^). ri.C(lUirea ) ^^^^_ Tobacco, 

L for ((•). Opium, etc. 



(r). Desires for 



(1). Food, etc., 

(2). Existence, 

(3). Kuowledf^e, 

(4). Society, 

(5). Happiness, 

(6). Esteem, etc., 

(7). Superiority, 

(8). Power, 

(9)" Acquisition of Property, 

1 (tf). Hope, 
Complex feelings.-^ (b). Despair, etc., 

I ((■). Apprehension, etc. 



(10) 



34 



OUTLINES OF 



{d). Affections. 






Beneficent. 
Defensive. 



(3). Malevolent, 



((«)• Domestic, 

{b). Social, 

(c). Philauthropic. 






Resentment, 
lodignatiou. 



f (a). Anger, 

I (b). Envy, 

J ('■). Jealousy, 
I (d). Revenge, 

(e). Malice, 

[ (/). Hatred, etc., etc. 



(I). Beautiful, 
ie) Hieher Emotions, produced by thei C-^)- Sublime, etc., 

^ ' (3). Wit, Humor, etc. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 



XII. 

The Will. 

Before putting forth any voluntary activity, either of body or mind, we 
arc conscious of choosing and detcrmi7t.'my to act. 

The ability or power of the mind {a) to choose 
and {h) determine is called the Will. 

Theories and discussions concerninir Its nature, freedom, etc., are aside 
from the present purpose. 

{a). Choice. 

Choice involves several considerations. 

(i). An Alternative. — More objects than one. 

(2). Freedom of mental action. 

(3). Deliberation. — Time for the action of Jtidg- 
ment. 

(4). Conflicting or op[)Osing motives and influ- 
ences. — Reasons for and against, etc. 

(5). Finally a desiie, springing up in conse- 
quence of examination, deliberation, etc. 

An ultimate analysis^ I believe, reveals a deaire, of some sort, 
preceding every act of choosing. It may be a desire to avoid 
one alternative rather than to enjoy the other. According to 
this view, desire is the universal ultimate motive. 



36 OUTLINES OF 

(/O. Motives. 

The word is used to denote 

(i). The external objects, considerations, influ- 
ences, etc., which produce in the mind the feelings 
which induce choice and determination. 

(2). The feelings of mind which precede and 
cause choice and determination. 

Much confusion of thought is occasioned by the careless use 
of the term motive, even by writers upon Psychology. 

(3). Classification of Motives. 

Various classifications are given by different authors, but 
none of them are of special importance to our work. A clear 
conception of the relation between the Will and the other facul- 
ties is of the highest importance, especially to teachers. 

{i). Determination or Volition. 

The final mental act which follows choice is usually 
called Executive Volition. 

Having chosen an object or course, one dctcrmhies or decides to act in 
order to secure it. 

Obstacles, known or unknown, may prevent the consumation of an 
outward act, but they cannot interfere with the laws of mental 
activity. 



XIII. 

Relation of Intellect, Sensibilities and Will. 

{a). General Statement. In a regular and complete 
series of mental acts, the order is 

(i). Knowing.— Activity of the Intellect. 

(2). Feeling. — Activity of the Sensibility. 



ftlUDV AND INSTRUCTION. 37 

(3). Choosing and Determining.— Activity of 

the Will. 

The intuitive emotions of early childhood, infancj-, probably are 
not preceded by any conscious knowledge. 

{/>). Reflex Influence. (i) The Sensibilities, when 
excited, re-act ujjon the Intellect, and, in most cases, quicken 
and help its activity. (2) The Will, moved by desire, gives 
direction and persistency to the action of the Intellect. 

This is illustrated by the eagerness and perseverance with which one 
pursues any object or purpose which is said to wteresi him ; that is, which 
excites in his mind some strong feeling. 

(c). Practical Inferences. 

(i). Neither the Will nor the Sensibilities can be 
approached and moved directly. They must be reached 
through the Intellect. 

(2). If the ultimate object in view is to produce some 
change of conduct, or to secure ends involving what is 
known, or supposed, to be disagreeable, the approach 
must be skilful as well as indirect. Otherwise the feel- 
ings excited will be the opposite of those desired. 

(3). No mode of management and government in a 
school can be good which does not take into account the 
relation of the faculties, and the right way of reaching 
the Will. 



XIV. 

The Moral Nature. 

{a). Difficulties in the discussion of this part of 

man's nature, real and imaginary, arising from 

(i). Its connection with the Spiritual and Religious 
elements in his nature. 



38 OUTLINES OF 

{2). Its relation to practical questions of conduct, 
obligation, responsibility, etc. 

(3). Differences of opinion and belief as to the bases 
of morals, of obligations, of moral laws, etc. 

(/-). General Ideas, Beliefs, etc. 

(1). Men universally have the idea of a moral right 
and wrong in human character and conduct. 

The universality of this idea indicates its intuitive 
origin. 

(2). Men universally have a " moral consciousness; " 
that is, feelings of api^roval and disapproval of their own 
and others' character and conduct. 

(3). The idea of a right and wrong, and a feeling of 
ai)proval and disapproval, necessarily compel or imply 
the belief in a self-directing power in man. 

An automaton can do no wrong, and can melit 
neither approval or disapproval. 

(4), Both consciousness and observation testify to the 
power of the human will to give preference and prepon- 
derance to one motive over another, or to choose with a 
large degree of freedom. 

The phrase, " strongest motive," as it is usually em- 
ployed, is unfortunate and misleading. 

The J2;reat influence of " heredity and environment " is freely 
admitted by all candid minds. The very fact that these do have so 
much power, renders the demand for moral education more impera- 
tive. 

(5). Punishment can rightfully be inflicted by parents, 
teachers, and civil officers, only upon beings who have 
power of self-determination. 
Machines are not punished. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 39 

(<:). Absolute necessity for the Moral Development, 
Training, and Instruction of children, obvious from several 
considerations. 

(i). Human society would be intolerable, if it could 
exist, without the restraints and influences of positive 
morality, — of authoritative moral laws and ol)ligations. 

(2). It is impossible to conceive of society without 
such restraint under any form of government. 

(3). Such restraints and influences are especially 
necessary where there is the least possible restraint from 
civil law, and the greatest possible degree of individual 
freedom. 

(4). They are still more necessary where the civil laws 
themselves derive their character and efficiency from the 
body of the people. 

(5). History, observation, and experience unite in 
teaching the value and importance of instruction and 
training in the " every-day " virtues of truthfulness, 
honesty, integrity, purity, etc., etc. 

(6). Intellectual culture and intelligence, while they / 

free from many low and vulgar vices, elevate and refine 1/ 
the taste, and bring incalculable benefits to society, do 
not, alone, insure practical morality. 



XV. 

Analysis of the Moral Nature. 

The moral nature cannot be separated from the other faculties and pow- 
n-s of the mind. 

Some of its activities are the same as those of the intellect, simply 
urned in another direction and exercised upon different objects. 



40 OUTLINES OF 

The Moral Nature is composed of 

(0. Faculties.— Abilities to do, etc. 

{2). Sensibilities. — Susceptibilities to feelings, that 
is, to emotions, affections, etc. 

(A). The Moral Faculties. 

(i). Moral Intuition. The Faculty which gives 
th'e primary and simple idea of right and wrong. 

This idea is merely of the existence of such a distinction, and not 
that particular states, acts etc., are ri<;ht or wrong. 

(2). Moral Sense or Perception. — The Faculty 
which discerns the moral cjualities of simple states, acts, 
etc. 

(3). Moral Judgment.— The Faculty which exam- 
ines, compares, and decides in respect to all questions of 
moral right and wrong. 

This Judgment is the intellectual judgment exercised upon moral 
Questions. In both cases, it performs the same offices, and is sul)ject 
to the same laws and limitations. 

It decides according to its Jcnowledffc, after examination and com- 
parison, and according to the stmnlard wliicli has been received and 
adopted. 

Sources of Knowledge. 

The Judgment derives its knowledge from, 

{a). The Moral Sense. — Perception. 

{/>). Education, in the home, church, school, etc. 

{i). Customs, Habits, etc., observed in traveling 
al)road. 

(^/). Civil Law, in matters relating to the duties 
and obligations of citizens, etc. 

(r). Revelation. This will api^ly only to those 
who believe in a Revelation. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 41 

Standards of Judgment. 

In a final analysis they are reduced to two. 

{a). Rules of conduct, or general Principles of 
living, made known by a Moral Governor. 

(b) Considerations ot Utility. Rules of con- 
duct, or Principles of living based upon the nature 
of man and upon the teachings of experience. 

The two standards would undoubtedly be found to agree if human 
wisdom could fully master and comprehend them. 

(4). Conscience. The Faculty which insists that 
the decisions of the Moral Judgment shall in all cases 
be obeyed. 

In other words, that Power or Principle in the Soul which insists 
that we shall be and do what we believe, after the most careful and 
honest examination, to be right, and shall abstain from being- or doing 
what we believe to be wrong. 

It need hardly be said, even to avoid misconstruction, that belief is 
not a standard of right. 

{a). Conscience, as defined, is always to be 
obeyed. It makes no mistakes. 

(d). Moral Judgment may, and often does, err. 

(B). The Moral Feelings. 

(t). Simple Emotions of Satisfaction and Dissatisfac- 
tion. 

These are almost intuitive, and appear at an early period of life. 
They are closely connected with the simplest intellectual emotions, 
and have no definite relation to character. 

(2). Feelings of Obligation. 

These are at first weak, but gradually become stronger as the Moral 
Judgment matures. 



42 OUTLINES OF 

(3). Feelings of Approbation and Disappro- 
bation. 

These arc directed toward one's self and also toward others. They 
are the ripened form of the simple emotions, and have a definite rela- 
tion to character and conduct. Intensified, they become the feelings 
which follow obedience or disobedience to the authority of Con- 
science 

(4). Moral Desires and Affections. 

These are the general Desires and Affections taking directions 
which involve moral considerations. 

(5). Higher Moral Emotions, arising from 
objects, ideas, etc , possessing moral Beauty, Grandeur, 
etc. 

These differ from the intellectual emotions chiefly in respect to the 
objects which produce them. 

(C). Practical Suggestions. 

(i). The conduct of life can be satisfactorily directed, 
either for one's self or for others, only by general 
Principles of living, not by definite Rules. 

Childhood, either of individuals or of the race, requires rules ; 
Maturity, principles. 

(2). Every well-ordered life has a definite moral pur- 
pose or end in view. 

Things which may or may not be done, in living such 
a life, divide into the {a) Morally Right, {b) Morally 
Wrong, and (r) Morally Indifferent. 

A decision as to the first two is easy ; as to the third the determi- 
nation should be predicated upon the general influence which doing 
or not doing, etc., will have upon (1) one's own power to accomplish 
the main purpose of life, and (2) the general influence upon others. 

(3). Power to benefit others morally depends, chiefly, 
upon personal character, and good character is the 
natural outgrowth of good Principles. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. -13 

{£>). Summary of the Moral Nature. 

I (a). Moral Intuition, 

(l). Faculties. f\- Moral Sense. 

^ ' (c). Moral Judgment. 

[ (d). Conscience. 

f (a). Simple Emotions of Satisfaction and Dis- 
I satisfaction. 

I (h). Feelings of Obligation. 

(2). Feelings. -; (e). Feelings of Approbation and Disappro- 
I bation. 

I {d). Desires and Affections. 

t (e). Higher Emotions, etc. 



44 OUTLINES OF 



XVI. 

PART SECOND. 

Laws or Conditions of Development, etc. 

The consideration of these laws, and of some inferences and dednctions 
from them, constitutes the second part of the study of the Theory of Edu- 
cation. 

The term law, as here employed, includes facts, condi- 
tions, circumstances, etc., under and according to which the 
human being is best developed, trained, and instructed. 

1. First Law.— Order of Development, etc. 

The Human Powers and Faculties are devel- 
oped, etc., in a natural and regular order. 

This law is obvious, but not equally so, in all divisions of the complex 
nature of man. 

(A). Order in the Body. 

(i). The Digestive and closely related sys- 
tems. Necessary to mere animal existence. 

(2). The Nervous, Muscular and related sys- 
tems. Necessary to self-adjustment to surroundings, to 
self-support, etc. 

(3). The Reproductive system. Necessary to 
the perpetuity of the race. 

{B). Order in the Mind. 

(i). In the Intellectual Faculties. 

{a). The Perceptive Faculties. I'he Sen- 
ses, Powers of Observation by which Knowledge is 
immediately acquired. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 45 

{/?). The Representative and Reproduc- 
tive Faculties. Retention, Reproduction, Rep- 
resentation are mental activities possible only after 
some acquisition through the senses. 

(r). The Elaborative Faculties. The pro- 
cesses of Elaboration are possible only after ac([ui- 
sition and representation. 

The fact is, of course, recognized that the second and third 
classes of faculties have the bqjinninfjs of their activities at a 
very early period of a child's life. 

{3). In the Sensibilities. 

Since feeling necessarily follows or attends knowing, the de- 
velopment of the Sensibilities must be co-ordinate with the 
development of the Intellect. 

The steps of progress, however, are not so distinct and ob- 
vious in the Sensibilities. They can be indicated only in a gen- 
eral way. 

(a). The simple, instinctive Emotions and the 
natural Appetites. 

(//). The Affections and Desires. 

(r). The Higher Emotions. 

(3). In the Will. 

The development of the power and energy of the 
Will is clearly progressive, but the progress does not 
admit of separation into sharply defined steps. 

As the activity of the Will is conditional upon the activity of both 
the Intellect and the Sensibilities, its development must be co-ordi- 
nate with their development in a mind rightly cultivated. 

(4). In the Moral Nature. 

Some elements of the Moral Nature can Ije distinguished and sepa- 
rated from similar elements of the Intellect and Sensibilities only in 
thought. The order of development of this nature must, therefore, 
be essentially that of the Intellect. 



46 OUTLINES OF 

[a). Moral Sense, Perception and simple feelings 
of satisfaction and dissatisfaction. [Simple Emo- 
tions.] 

{i>). Moral Judgment and the feeling of Obli- 
gation. (Moral Affections, Desires, etc.) 

(c). Conscience and the Higher Emotions. 
All the moral powers have the heginnings of their activities 
at an early period of life, but somewhat later thau the Intellec- 
tual powers. 

2. Inferences and Deductions from the first Law, 

and Applications of its teachings. 

{A). School Life is naturally divided into three 
Periods. 

{a). Primary or Elementary Period, Child- 
hood, of which the prominent characteristics are, 

(i). Body. Constant, varied and apparently 
aimless activity. Not capable of sustained effort. 
Vigorous natural appetites. 

(2.) Intellect. Special activity of the senses, 
the observing faculties. 

(3). Sensibilities. Great susceptibility to sim- 
ple emotions, and to sudden changes of feelings. 
Curiosity specially active but easily satisfied. 

(4). Will. Little steady or controlling powar 
of Will. 

(5). Moral Nature. Moral faculties and feel- 
ings show but little activity or strength. Notions 
of right very indefinite, and feelings of obligation 
scarcely discoverable. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 47 

{/>). Secondary or Transition Period, Youth, 

of which the most obvious characteristics are, 

, (i). Body. Vigorous, but intermittent and less 
aimless activity. Rapid increase of strength. Capa- 
ble of effort considerably reg-ilar and sustained. 
Natural Appetites vigorous and a tendency to the 
formation of artificial ones. 

(2). Intellect. Senses still active. Representa- 
tive and Reproductive faculties becoming specially 
active. Ready mastery of facts, processes, and sim- 
ple relations, etc. 

(3). Sensibilities. Desires and x\ffections rap- 
idly developing, and easily kindled into passions. 
Tendency to excessive activity of some of the de- 
fensive and malevolent feelings. 

(4). Will. Rapidly increasing in power, but 
still intermittent and unreliable except under the 
impulse of strong and present motives. 

(5). Moral Nature. Moral Judgment slowly 
developing but unreliable. Feelings of Obligation 
gaining strength under right instruction. Conscience 
beginning to exert considerable power. 

(r). Period of Maturity, Manhood, of which 

the marked characteristics are, 

(i). Body. General maturity of all its powers. 
Little aimless activity. Capability of vigorous and 
sustained effort. 

(2). Intellect. Approaching harmonious and 
full development of all the Faculties. The Elab- 
orative Faculties especially active. 



48 OUTLINES OF 

(3). Sensibilities. The Rational feelings and 
especially the Higher Emotions cxiiibit marked ac- 
tivity. 

(4). "Will. Ilecoming strong and reliable under 
the impulse of ordinary motives. 

(5). Moral Nature. Moral Judgment, Con- 
science, and the higher moral feelings act with more 
efficiency and regularity. 

{B). Schools are naturally divided into three 
kinds. 

{a). Primary or Elementary Schools. (Primary 
Departments of Graded Schools.) 

These should be adapted to the characteristics and 
needs of childhood in respect to (i) Buildings and Ap- 
pliances, (2) Organization, {3) Management, (4) Subjects 
and Hours of study, and (5) Methods of Instruction. 

{/>). Secondary Schools. (Ch-ammar and first 
years of High School Departments of Graded Schools.) 

These should be adapted, in the particulars before 
named, to the characteristics and needs of the period of 
Youth. 

(r). Advanced Schools. (Last years of High 
Schools and all Higher Institutions of learning.) 

These should be adapted to the characteristics and 
needs of the period of Manhood or Maturity. 

(C). Methods, Means and Appliances of Instruc- 
tion are naturally grouped for treatment into three divisions. 

((/). Primary or Elementary Methods, etc. 

(/'). Secondary Methods, etc. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 



49 



(r). Advanced Methods, etc. 



Methods, Means etc. should be adapted to tlie general characteristics 
of both body and mind at each period; to any special cmiditions and 
circumstances; and to 2^a>'ticular j^urposcs or ends so far as these are al- 
lowed to modify the arrangements and workings of a school. 

s. Second Law .--Conditions of Development etc. 

The human powers and faculties are developed 
etc. only on condition of proper Exercise, — of 
Self-Activity. 

Deductions, Inferences, etc. 

{a). Adequate Provision should be made, (i) 
in School Buildings, (2) in Courses of Studies, (3) in 
Organization and Management, and (4) in Methods of 
Teaching, for activity, both of body and mind, adapted 
to each period of school life. 

{/>). Physical Activity should be especially pro- 
vided for in the Primary School. A well developed body 
is one of the conditions of a well developed soul. 

(i). The Sensibilities and Moral Faculties 
require appropriate exercise for their i)roper develop- 
ment as much as the Intellectual and the Physical natures. 

(c/). A teacher's success may be estimated, with toler- 
able accuracy by the character and degree of activity 
excited in pupils. 

Note.— The purpose in view does not require, at this point, fur- 
ther direct consideration of the physical nature. The laws which 
follow refer only to the mind. 

4. Tliird Law.— Means of Development, etc. 

Materials or Objects of Knowledge and Thought 
properly presented to the mind, produce this self- 
activity. 



50 OUTLINES OF 

Deductions, Inferences, etc. 

{a). The Relation of Knowledge to Education 

as a work and process (page 5. — 9. Def.) is two fold. 

(i). Frimanly, means to a higher end, — the per- 
fection of the human being. 

(2). Secondarily, a subordinate e/n:^ in itself, — to 
be acquired for the use and adornment of life. 
(/^). Proper presentation involves several con- 
siderations, indicated here, but discussed in another con- 
nection. 

Objects of Knowledge etc. must be 

(i). Of the proper kind. — Adapted in kind 
to the [a) Period of life, (d) Special conditions and 
circumstances, and (r) Subordinate end of use etc. 
(2). Of proper form or condition. 
(3). Of proper quantity or amount. 
(4). Presented in a proper manner, and 
(5). At the proper time. 
Adapted under each head as specified under (i). 
The analogy betweeu the conditions of bodily and mental 
activity affords convenient means of illustrating the particulars 
here indicated. The mere presence of proper food, in proper 
condition, quantity, etc., in the stomach, produces all necessary 
activity. Digestion, assimilation etc. follow by a necessity of 
nature if the organs are in health. 

The mind, in presence of proper material, acts as naturally 
and freely. The power of the Will and the influence of sur- 
roundings are, of course, to be taken into account. 

5. Fourth Law.— Teacliing.— Position of the 
Teacher. 

Teaching is the proper presentation of materials 
or objects of knowledge and thought to the mind 
of the learner. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 51 

Or, Placing the mind of the learner ami the thing to be learned iu 
I)ropcr relation to each other. 

Training is the practice, or repetition of processes etc. 
by which the learner becomes ready and skilful in the uses 
and applications of that which has been learned. 

Teaching and training rightly combined make up the teacher's work. 

The fourth law, so-called, is not, strictly speaking, a law of develop- 
ment. It is stated here in order to indicate clearly the teacher's relation to 
the work and process of education. The explication and application of 
this law belong under the next general division. 



52 



OUTLINES OF 



XVII. 

PART THIRD. 

Purposes, Means, and Methods of Teaching. 

The discussious iu this part necessarily embrace, to a j^reater extent than 
in previous pages, theory and art combined. 

The summaries of Laws, Maxims etc. followiuaj, are grouped here chiefly 
for convenience of reference. 

{A). Laws of Acquisition. 

(i). In its earliest learning, the child proceeds from 
(i) real objects, acts, etc., to (2) ideas, notions, etc., then 
to (3) words, as names, signs, symbols of objects etc. 

In the later periods, after the words have become 
loaded with meaning, and are suggestive by the laws of 
association, the order may be, and often must be, (i) 
words as signs etc. (2) objects, ideas etc., things signified. 

(2). The child learns (1) particulars, (2) generals ; (i) 
individuals, (2) classes. 

The mature mind usually reverses the order, and 
learns (i) generals, (2) particulars; (i) classes, (2) indi- 
viduals. 

(3). The child learns (i) facts, processes, etc., (2) 
causes, reasons, definitions, rules, etc. 

This order may be reversed in later periods, but not 
with advantage unless the language employed suggests 
clearly and vividly the processes, facts, etc. 

(4). In learning properties of bodies, colors, and 
many other things, the child must proceed from (i) the 
concrete to (2) the abstract. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 53 

When words have become suggestive symbols, this 
order may be disregarded. 

(5) In all periods, the mind acquires knowledge (i) 
of wholes, (2) of parts, qualities, etc. 

The "wholes" of the child are very unlike the " wholes'' of the 
man. The wholes of either may be parts of still greater wholes. It 
is only necessary that the whole be a unit, complete in itself. 

(6). The child acquires (i) language early and easily; 
(2) the laius of language later and with more difficulty. 

This is only a specific case under general law No. 3. 

(7). The mind, especially of the child, can receive 
only a single object, and only a limited amount of the 
material of knowledge, at one time. 

(8). The acquisitive power of the mind, in order to 
most productive activity, requires variety of matter of 
knowledge, and periods of relaxation. 

{D). Laws of Retention and Reproduction. 
{Sec Pages 15—17.) 

(C). Laws of Elaboration. 

The knowledge which the mind first obtains of "the whole " is an in- 
definite, general outline ; material of knowledge rather than trixe knowledge. 

(i). In Elaboration, the mind first proceeds from the 
whole to parts, qualities, etc., by analysis. 

The extent and character of this analysis will be determined by the 
age of the learner and by the immediate purpose in view. 

(2). In Elaboration, the mind compares the new "un- 
known" with some old "known," noting differences, re- 
semblances, relations, etc. 

The extent of this comparisou will be determined by the end in 
view. 

(3). In Elaboration, the mind finally reconstructs by 
synthesis the whole trom the parts into which it has been 
resolved by analysis, 

The first whole of perception or conception is confused and shad- 
owy ; the final whole of elaboration is clear and definite. 



54 OUTLINES OF 

(Z>). Some Laws of Presentation or Teaching. 

These laws arc simply correlatives of the laws of Acquisition, Elabora- 
tion, etc. 

(i). The teaching of Childhood should be largely 
concrete and objective ; and should be adapted to excite 
and gratify [a] the desire for bodily exercise, (6) the feel- 
ing of curiosity, and (r) the activity of the senses, (the 
observing faculties). 

The "object lesson j" is only one, and not the most important, 
variety or form of objective teaching. 

(2). In early Childhood, present {a) the Individual 
and Particular before {l>) the Class and General. 

In later periods, the order should generally be reversed. 

The child begins to make easy classifications and generalizations at 
a very early age ; and should be encouraged and taught to do so, 
provided these are not simply repetitions of unmeaning terms. 

(3). In early teaching, {a) Facts, Processes, Ideas 
Truths, etc., should be presented before {^) Causes, Rea- 
sons, Principles, Rules, Definitions 

In more advanced teaching, this order will often be 
departed from. 

(4). In all periods, present the material of knowledge 
in the form of wholes which can be resolved into parts 
by the learner. 

The nature of the wholes, parts, etc., is indicated under one of 
the laws of acquisition. 

(5). All subjects should be so presented and treated, 
especially during Childhood and Youth, as to cultivate 
the power and habit of correct expression. 

Language is to be learned, primarily, not as an end but as a memis. 
Its acquisition is a necessary condition of all progress in other branches 
of knowledge. 

Things and words must be learned together. The study of the 
formal laws of language is quite another matter. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 00 

(6). In teaching, eacli lesson should have a single, 
definite purpose, and should present but a limited amount 
of matter. 

" One thing at a time," and not too mucli of that one, is a maxim 
of prime importance in dealing witli children. 

(7). Subjects should be so presented to children as to 
afford all the variety consistent with the one definite pur- 
pose of the lesson. 

Unity is a necessity in school work, but this unity should be con- 
sistent with variety. 

(8). In the presentation of most topics, in the periods 
of Youth and Manhood, both the inductive and deduct- 
ive methods will be employed. 

The true teacher will employ any method and all methods which 
help to secure the best practical results, with very little regard for 
theories concerning " Analysis or Synthesis;" or questions about the 
"genesis of Knowledge in the race," "the methods of nature," or 
any other method. No one system, method or creed of education 
contains all truth. 

(9). In the presentation of all subjects, special regard 
should be had to the proper '' laws of association," in 
order to facilitate retention and reproduction. 

Artificial aids to memory have very little permanent value ; the aid 
rendered by right order and arrangement in presentation can hardly 
be over estimated. 



XVIII. 



Purposes, Means and Methods, of the Period 
of Childhood.— Elementary Methods. 

Gcvrral methods of teaching are indicated with sufficient clearness by 
the laws of Presentation. The statements and discussions which follow 
are, to some extent, Hpeclil applications of these to the purposes most promi- 
nent and important in the different periods. 



56 OUTLINES OF 

Purposes, and how attained. 

1. To give proper development and training to 
the body, and to create good bodily habits.— Physi- 
cal Culture. 

To secure this, attention must be given to the (i) 
School-room in respect to {(j) funiititrc, {!>) teinpcni- 
tun\ (r) ventilatiou, {d) light, etc. 

(2). To The Child in respect to {a) posiiioiis in 
standing, sitting, {J)) movements in walking etc., (r) 
alternation of action and rest etc , (^/) eyes as to dis- 
tance of book, direction of light etc., {e) hands and fin- 
gers in the use of articles in writing, drawing, etc. 

Exercises io writiuc,- and drawiii"- serve other important ends, 
but they should be made especially valuable in training the eye and 
the hand. 

2. To develop and train the senses, and create 
habits of attention and observation. — Culture of 
the Observing Powers. 

The sense most cultivated in school is xijlU; next to this liearutg; touch, 
somewhat; the others, very little. 

This will be accomplished by 

[a). Furnishing means for using the senses, as 
as far as possible, in connection with all lessons and 
studies of early childhood. 

{l>). Teaching how to use them, and by con- 
stant training in their use. 

(r). Appealing skilfully to curiosity, the mo- 
tive power of childhood, and allowing freedom for the 
activity of the hands and body as well as the eyes and 
ears. 

The arrangements, employments, and methods of the Primary 
schools should, in many respects, be radically changed. 

The introduction of the spirit, some of the '• gifts." and modified 
forms of the employments of the Kindcrgarteu will produce the 
needed changes. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. '-> I 

o. To commence the acquisition, on the part of 
the child, of useful Knowledge. 

Early education is ti period of preparSiUou for acquisition, rather tlian 
of acquisition itself. The instruments of acquisition are being sharpened 
and fitted for use. 

Nevertheless, this puri)osc will be the primai-y one in the minds of both 
teachers and pupils. By a most happy provision of nature, the higher end 
is sure to be reached if right processes and means are employed to secure 
the subordinate end. Food is taken for the growth and repair of the body, 
but it is eaten simply to gratify appetite. 

This pur])ose will be secured by properly presenting right 
materials and objects of Knowledge. 
Studies of the Primary school. 
{a). Language, including (i) Conversation, (2) 
Reading, (3) Spelling, (4) Copying and Composing. 
(A). Number and Form. 

(<r). Natural Science, etc., including (i) Common 
Objects, (2) Animals, (3) Plants, (4) P^lementary Geog- 
raphy and History, etc., etc. 

{d). Physical Training, including (0 Writing 
and Drawing, (2) Singing, (3) Kindergarten Plays, (where 
practicable). 

The laws of Presentation suggest the points for discussion in 
respect to special methods of teaching these su]>,jects. 



XIX. 

Purposes, Means and Methods, of the period of 
Youth.— Secondary Methods. 

1. To cultivate the power of Expression, and 

create the habit of using language readily and correctly. 
This is accomplished by 

{a). Securing first clear and distinct ideas, thoughts, 
etc. 



5B OUTLINES OF 

{/>). Teaching right words and fonns of expression. 
{c). Afibrding abundant opportunities for practice, 
both orally and in writing. 

These points shouUl be reo^arded in all lessons and exercises, as 
well as in special lessons in language. 

2. To develop and train the Memory. 

This will be secured by 

{a). Teaching in harmony with the laws of asso- 
ciation and suggestion. 

{/'). Compelling pupils to rely upon memory ; giving 
the faculty appropriate exercise. 

{c). Requiring only a reasonable amount of service; 
not over-taxing. 

The faculty of Conception will necessarily be cultivated in con- 
nection with Memory, and also in connection with all lessons learned 
from books. The Imagination will be called into special service in 
the study of Geography and History. 

3. To Teach especially those studies and parts of studies 
which involve the learning of facts, processes, descrip- 
tions, etc. 

Among these studies are 

{a). Language continued, particularly (r) Reading, 
and (2) Composing, etc. 

{/>). Arithmetic and Mathematical Forms. 

{c). Geography and History. 

{d). Elementary Natural and Physical Sciences. 

{('). Writing, Drawing, Vocal Music, etc. 

The first and second purposes will be accomplished if the work of 
the third is correctly done. 

The laws of Acquisition, Presentation, etc., will 
suggest the necessary discussion of special methods of 
teaching the branches named. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 59 

XX. 

Purposes, Means and Methods, of the period of 
Maturity.- -Advanced Methods. 

1. To develop and train the Faculties of Elab- 
oration, and to create the habit of judging and reasoning 
correctly and rapidly. 

Accomplished by 

(a). Presenting proper subjects of study, subjects 
which naturally compel the exercise of these faculties. 

{b). Teaching by such methods that these faculties 
must be employed rather than mere verbal memory. 

(r). Giving opportunities for the exercise of these 
faculties, to a reasonable extent, upon the practical 
affairs and problems of daily life. 

2. To aid in the formation of right character ; to prepare 
pupils for citizenship and for the duties belonging to the 
various relations of life ; and to create habits of self-govern- 
ment and right action. 

Accomplished by 

{a). Influence of right character and conduct in the 
teacher. 

{b). Right methods of school management and gov- 
ernment. 

(r). Wise use of the lessons of history, biography, 
and of current events. 

{d). Proper appeals to the best and highest motives 
in the human soul. 

3. To teach branches of knowledge appropriate to the 
period of life, and to the character and design of the school. 

The range of studies appropriate to advanced schools is so wide that no 
enumeration of them is necessary. Selections should be made according to 
circumstances, conditions, etc. 



GO 



OUTLINES OF 



•4. To teach how to study ; to develop a taste for study, 
and to create right habits of study. 

5. To give some knowledge of good books in the various 
departments of history, literature, science, art, etc., and to 
create a taste for good reading. 

Schools, even the best, can do little more, during the brief time of 
school life, than to prepare pupils for ac(iuiriug knowledge, and to indicate 
where the materials of knowledge can be found, That teacher is guilty of 
a great wrong who sends pupils out into the world with exaggerated 
notions of the extent and value of their attainments. 

Methods of teaching in this period are readily deduced 
from the laws previously given. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION 61 



XXI. 

Some Special Topics. 

A. 

Securing Attention. 

1. Attention defined (Page 16, (/) (i). 

While only that mental activity which is directed and held by the Will, 
is strictly speaking, attention, yet usage allows us to give that name to such 
activity directed and held by any means. Consequently we speak of 
involuntary attention. 

2. One most important purpose of education is to give the 
Will complete control over all the other powers and faculties. 
All attention is then volitional. The training of the school 
should tend to this result. 

3. Voluntary attention can be given in obedience to a 
request or command. 

Involuntary attention must be caught and held by other 
means. 

4. Securing the attention of Young Children. 

(./). So far as the attention is voluntary it may be 
requested and commanded, and secured by the motives 
of (i) rewards, and (2) penalties. 

The true teacher will not rely much upon this method in dealing 
with young children. Other methods are more effective. 

{b). Make only reasonable demands upon the attention 
of children. All exercises and lessons should be short. 

{r). Provide for physical exercise and frequent change 
of position in connection with all lessons. 



b'J, OUTLINES OF 

((^/). Excite and gratify curiosity in the matter and 
manner of teaching. Present a subject in such a way 
that expectation is kept constantly alive. 

(^). Provide for all possible variety by means of illus- 
trations, etc. 

(/). So enter into the subject as to excite the feeling 
of sympathy and to create something of enthusiasm. 

A genuine feeling of interest is contagious. If attention and 
interest are expected in pupils they must first exist in the teacher. 

[g). Sometimes, but not often, an appeal may be made 
to the feelings of surprise, wonder, etc. 

5. Securing the attention of older pupils. 

Some of the suggestions as to seating, position of teacher, etc., here 
made, will apply also to young children. 

(a). Determine, in your own mind, to have attention, 
and expect to have it. 

It is neither necessary nor desirable to repeat frequently that j^ou 
must have attention. It is not secured in that way. 

(/')• The seating of a class and the position of a 
teacher aid or hinder in securing attention. 

The arrangements should be such that the eije of the teacher can 
readily command a view of every individual iu the class. 

{c). A teacher must show, by all his work, that he has 
a thorough knowledge of the subject and also of methods 
of presenting it. 

{d). Topics should be presented clearly and consec- 
utively, but with very little repetition. 

(f). Questions should be put, as far as practicable, to 
the class, and then individuals called to answer them. 

(/). Pupils should frequently be required, at any 
period in the recitation, to reproduce statements and 
instructions previously given. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 63 

{(/). When time allows, summaries and recapitulations 
should be required at the close of a recitation, and 
also at the succeeding recitation. 

(//). Speak distinctly, but in an ordinary tone of 
voice ; and do not allow pupils to expect a repetition of 
explanations, ijuestions, etc. 

(/'). In order to reach exceptional cases, it must be 
understood that continued inattention will incur appro- 
priate "pains and penalties." 

It should be kept in mind that attention on the part of pupils, 
under ordinary circumstances, is not so much a condition of good 
teaching as a result of good teaching. If the teaching is good, the 
attention will usually be good also. 



13. 



Art of Questioning. 



The relation between Questioning and Attention is such that some 
repetition is unavoidable. 

1. Prerequisites on the part of the questioner. 

{a). Thorough knowledge of the subject and its 
relations. 

[b). Knowledge of the laws of mind, especially of 
the laws of association and suggestion. 

{c). Knowledge of the acquirements, condition, etc., 
of the learner. 

(d). A definite and present purpose and preparation. 

[e). Skill acquired by practice. 

2. General purposes of questioning. 

'^'{(i)' To make the learner conscious of his ignorance 
as a preparation and an incentive to study. (Socratic 
questioning. 



64 OUTLINES OF 

(^). To give the teacher necessary knowledge of the 
acquirements and condition of the learner. 

{c). To test ability and skill in applying rules, prin- 
ciples, etc., to new cases, conditions, and circumstances. 

These four purposes may all be mfluded under the more geueral 
purpose of exaniiuation. 

((f). To aid in learning immediately and directly. 

(/). To suggest the direction and objects of future 
investigation and study. 

{g). To cultivate the power of clear and accurate 
expression. 

3. Form and character of questions. 

{a). Simple and clear in language. 

{b). Definite and direct in meaning. 

{c). Should not contain the answer, nor be leading. 

{d). Should admit of but one correct answer. 

{e). Questions of examination should not go beyond 
what the pupil ought to know. 

(/). Elliptical questions may be employed, to a 
limited extent, in teaching young children. 

ig). Questions for teaching should be consecutive 
and very carefully prepared. 

4. Manner in questioning. 

[a). Animated, with young children. 

[b). Pronunciation distinct, in ordinary speaking 
tones, without repetition. 

[c). Questions so put to the class that every one 
may expect to be called to answer; individuals then 
called. 

{(i). Examination questions upon topics just studied 
may be put rapidly; teaching questions usually slowly. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 65 

(d-). Questions should not be read from a book, unless 
the nature of the subject makes this absolutely necessary. 
Answers. 

{a). Guessing and trying several times should not be 
allowed. 

All necessary time should be granted for thinking', after the ques- 
tion is put, before the answer is demanded. 

(<^). Complete answers should be required, in good 
language and form, and, as far as practicable, in com- 
plete sentences, 

(r). Simultaneous answering should be only sparingly 
employed. 

{i/). Proper credit should be given, especially to 
young children, for answers, even though defective 
and incomplete. 

(e). Answers should be required in the pupil's own 
language, with only obvious and necessary exceptions. 

Pupils should he trained in questioning each other upon topics 
previously assigned, but no question should be allowed which the 
questioner is not prepared to answer. 



O. 

Order of Moral Development, etc. 

1. Obedience to authority should be taught and 
enforced very early in a child's life, before obligations and 
duties can be understood. 

2. A habit of Obedience, of right doing, is thus 
formed, while the intuitive perception of right is very 
indistinct. 

3. An impulse to right conduct begins now to be 
felt in the soul in consequence of the feeling of satisfac- 



66 ^ OUTLINES OF 

tion or dissatisfaction produced by the power of habit and 
by the moral sense, according as commands and require- 
ments are obeyed or disobeyed. 

4. The Moral Judgment now begins to act in 
accordance with the teachings of the moral sense, and 
the instructions of parents and others. 

5. Conscience begins to insist on obedience to the 
decisions of the Judgment, and to cause strong feelings of 
approbation or disapprobation, according as obedience is or 
is not rendered. 

6. The parent and teacher, while this process of 
development is going on, should give practical instruction, 
in all proper ways, in respect to relations, obligations, and 
duties to 

(a). Parents, and other relatives. 

{/f). Associates, neighbors, and friends. 

{f). School, teachers, and society. 

{(/). State, country, and civil authorities. 

(<f). Mankind, and the Supreme Ruler. 

7. Penalties, of a suitable character, may be inflicted 
for the violation of moral obligations and the neglect of 
duties. 



Oral Teacliing. 

Oral teaching embraces several varieties of work. The natural reaction 
against the misuse and abuse of text-books has caused the value of this 
kind of teaching to be over-estimated. It will be employed by all wise 
teachers, to a greater or less extent, in all departments, but especially witli 
young children. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 67 

1. Object Teaching. 

The purposes of this variety of oral teaching are essen- 
tially the same as those of all Elementary teaching, and 
need not be repeated here. Lessons may be given upon 
((?) form, {/>) color, {c) qualities, (r/) uses, etc. Such lessons 
should be {a) carefully prepared, ((^) should each have a 
definite purpose, {c) should be consecutive, and {d) should 
not be " random talks " about things which children already 
know. 

2. Objective Teaching. 

This variety of oral -teaching employs objects, to a 
considerable extent, in all the early lessons of childhood, 
not for the sake of the objects, but as the natural means 
of giving instruction in Reading, Numbers, etc. 

3. Geography, Natural Sciences, etc. 

The first instruction in Geography, in the simplest facts 
of Botany, Zoology, Physics, etc., will be oral, and, as far as 
practicable, objective also. As soon as children are able to 
read readily, properly prepared books will be useful, provided 
they are not used merely as text-books. 

4. Biography, History, Current Events. 

Familiar oral instruction should be given upon these and 
other topics in connection with lessons in Geography, in 
Reading, and in most text-book studies. 

5. Introductory and Supplementary. 

Additional introductory and supplementary instruction 
should be given orally in connection with all geographical, 
historical, literary, and scientific studies in which text-books 
are used. 

The "lecture raethocl" can not profitably be employed in ordinary 
schools. 



0(S OUTLINES OF 

E. 

Examinations. 

1. Uses of Examinations. 

{a). To make the teacher acquainted with the pupil s 
ability and acquirements, for purposes of classification 
and instruction. 

(^). To incite pupils to study and to retain knowledge. 

(r). To give parents an opportunity and the means of 
judging of the work and progress of their children. 

{d). To test the methods and efficiency of teachers, 
and of the school. 

(e). In some studies, an examination should chiefly 
test the memory; in others, the acquired power to think, 
judge, reason, and apply principles. 

2. Abuses of Examinations. 

{a). To make them productive of undue anxiety and 
nervous excitement on the part of industrious and faith- 
ful pupils. 

(l?). To make them too protracted, and too exacting 
either upon pupils or teachers. 

{c). To make them the means of converting teachers 
into machines for examining and marking papers. 

The extra and vinprofitable labor thus imposed upon teachers 
subtracts largely from the reserve power needed for the proper work 
of teaching. 

{d). To make them means of encouraging "cram- 
ming" and dishonesty. 

(<?). To make them tests of memory alone. 

(/). To make them the sole, or even the chief 
criterion of determining promotions. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 69 

Methods of Examinations, etc. 

(<r). Oral. This is the only practicable method with 
young children, and it should be used to a considerable 
extent in all grades. 

If rightly employed, it cultivates (i) attention, 
(2) self-possession, (3) readiness of memory, and (4) 
facility of expression. 

In many cases it affords better opportunity of testing both the 
acquisitions and ability of pupils than writing. 

[b). Written. This method should be employed, to 
some extent, as soon as children are able to write with 
tolerable rapidity and legibility, and largely with 
advanced pupils. 

It cultivates the habit (i) of thinking carefully, and 
(2) of composing and writing accurately. 

This method affords means of preserving evidence of success or 
failure on the part of the pupil, which is sometimes a matter of 
importance to teachers and other examiners. 

(r). Frequent., Short, Informal . 

Everv recitation is an examination in the work of a day ; a review 
may be an examination in the work of a week, or of a month. If 
pupils are properly instructed and "drilled," short, informal examina- 
tions may be frequently made, either oral or written, without previous 
notice. 

(</) Questions. 
These should always be (i) clear, (2) definite; relate 
to tliat which is (3) essential and important, not to the 
(4) incidental and trivial; test (5) results rather than 
(6) means. 

{c). A?iswQrs. 

Should also be (i) clear, (2) definite, (3) in good 
language, in (4) full sentences or not, as required. 

The credit to be given for the right answer to each question, 
in a written examination, should be fixed beforehand, but 
defective answers should receive some credit when they indicate 
honest effort and some knowledge. 



70 OUTLINES OF 

XXII. 

School Management. 

Considered under two general heads, (i) School Organi- 
zation and (2) Schoorii| iviTi,i^*nj i ri it. ^^»*<-»»-»:«:jo-»**.*/^^ 

Organization is one of the means of governing; right instruction 
also helps to govern, and right government instructs. 

(1). School Organization. 

{(7). Organizing a school is putting it into good 
working condition. It includes enrollment, seating, 
classification, programme of recitations and exercises, 
and all other necessary preliminary arrangements. 

The aim should be to put every pupil in the proper place, and 
at the proper work in the shortest possible time. 

(/;). Two classes of schools require separate con- 
sideration. 

{A). Common District Scliools. 

{a). Officer's,, (i) Number, (2) election, (3) time of 
service, (4) powers and duties, (5) relation to the organ- 
ization and government of the school. 

(A). General Condition of district schools in respect 
to (i) houses and furniture, (2) apparatus, maps, charts 
and library, (3) courses of studies, (4) classification, 
(5) records, (6) rules and regulations. 

(r). Character and Success of these schools depend 
almost entirely upon the teacher ; very little help can 
be had from others. 

(^/). Knotuledge desirable before entering such a 
school (i) of the general character of the people of the 
district, (2) of the officers, (3) of the previous history 
and character of the school, (4) of the classes, 
studies, etc. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION Vl 

{e). A definite plan of work for the first day, and a 
general plan of organization, should be carefully pre- 
pared beforehand. 

This is of especial importauce to a teacher of little experience; 
it may not be possible to follow every detail of the prepared plan, 
but it will be none the less valuable on that account. 

(/). The opcni/ig exercises and the general manage- 
ment of the first day should be, as nearly as possible, 
like the exercises and management determined upon for 
the term. 

{g). Order of work after the opening exercises. 

(i). Assign lessons to pupils old enough to 
study, — lessons which require study, — and name the 
temporary order of recitation. 

(2). Provide work for pupils too young to 
study lessons. 

(3). Take names etc., quietly, and make such 
arrangements about seating as may be necessary. 

(4). Commenee hearing and tcicJiing classes as 
soon as the preliminary work is completed. 

(5). Recesses and movements of the school should 
be at the time and in the manner arranged, in the 
plan of organization, tor the term. 

(6). A programme of exercises for the next day 
.should be announced or placed upon the blackboard 
before the close of school. 

Take the classes, for a time, as they have previously been; 
make necessary changes gradually ; the first recitations are, to 
some extent, examinations. 

(7). Announce few or no rules; assume that 
pupils will be orderly and obedient; require the 
order, on the first day, which you intend to require 
on subsequent days. 



/2 OUTLINES OF 

(//.) A pci-mancnt programme should be made within 
the first week, which should include : 

(i.) Order and lime of recitations. 
(2.) Time for preparing each lesson. 
(3.) Time for recesses, etc. 

(4.) Time for general exercises, questions, neces- 
sary business, etc. 
(/). Number of classes. 

(i.) Usually unnecessarily large. 
(2.) Reduce gradually by topical lessons and 
other means. 
[J). Division of time for classes and recitations 
determined by (i) age of pupils, (2) size of classes, (3) 
character of studies, (4) special circumstances. 

(/'.) Movements of e/assses, and of the school generally, 
made (i) quietly, (2) promptly, (3) uniformly, (4) by 
signals of some kind, not too numerousn or too formal. 
(/). Records should be kept., such as are required (i) by 
law, (2) by school officials, (3) by interests of the school. 
(;;/.) Advantages of prompt organization. 
(i.) Favorable influence upon pupils. 
(2.) Good effect upon the officers and patrons 
of the school. 

(3.) Effect upon the teacher, and upon the 
subsequent work of the school. 

(3.) Direct influence upon the government of 
the school. 

B. Graded Schools. 

{a.) A graded school is a school in which there are 
regular and consecutive courses of studies and instruc- 
tion ; in which pupils, classified and grouped according 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. (O 

to their attainments, pursue these courses in an assigned 
order; and in which the princii)le of division of labor 
among teachers is adopted. 

(/'.) Grades and Dcpartincnis. 

(i.) The term Grade usually denotes the pupils 
belonging in any one year of a course of studies; 
sometimes the studies of one year in a course. 

A grade may constitute a single class, or may 
be subdivided into two or more classes. 

(2.) A Department consists of several consecutive 
grades ; usually three or four. The large graded 
schools of Michigan have three Departments, the 
Primary, Grammar, and High School ; and twelve 
Grades, four in each Dei)artment. 

(3). The extent and character of courses of 
studies ; the number of departments, grades, and 
classes, should be determined by a wise regard for 
{a) local conditions and circumstances, and {b) by 
the number and qualifications of teachers. 

[c). General organization of such schools. 
The School Board. 

{a). Number of members : election ; time of service. 
{U). Organization and officers of the Board. 
(r). Powers and Duties of the Board. 

(i). Determine the internal organization of the 
school. 

(2). Establish rules and regulations in respect to 
Superintendent, Teachers, and Pupils, 

(3). Determine courses of studies and text-books. 
(4). Appoint and dismiss teachers, and fix their 
salaries. 



'74 OUTLINES OF 

(5). Have the general management and control 
of school property and school affairs. 

2. The Superintendent. 

This term, like tlie title "Professor," endures great sufferiug and 
abuse. Our "Profession" would command higher respect if Teachers 
were content to be called simply Teachers. 

The Superintendent is the executive officer of the Board 
in all matters relating to the internal management of schools. 
His specific duties vary somewhat in different localities, but 
usually include the particulars named below. 

(i). To advise and recommend in relation to courses 
of studies and instruction, text- books, apparatus, furni- 
ture, etc. 

(2). To advise in respect to the qualifications and 
appointments of teachers. 

(3). To have general oversight of the instruction and 
discipline of the schools, and to aid and direct teachers 
in cases of difficulty. 

(4). To direct in relation to the examinations and 
classification of pupils, or personally do this work. 

(5). To instruct teachers in methods of teaching and 
and management. 

(6). To keep such records and make such reports as 
the Board direct. 

The position of Superintendent is one of great responsibility alid 
delicacy. In many respects, he stands between the Teacher and the 
Board, and between the Teacher and the Public. 

It is of importance that he have high ideas of honor and justice ; 
that he have great equability of temper ; suavity of speech and 
manner, and be not liable to the influence of prejudice. 

3. The Teachers. 

Only such relations and duties as are peculiar to graded schools are 
indicated here. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 75 

(i). They should observe carefully and cheerfully all 
rules of the Board, and all instructions and suggestions 
of the Superintendent. 

(2). While individuality should not be sacrificed, 
they should adopt and follow the general methods and 
plans of the school; and should adhere to the prescribed 
courses of studies and text-books. 

(3). They should consult freely with the Superin- 
tendent in cases of real diffiulty, but should remember 
that unnecessary appeals to his authority seriously 
weaken their own power to manage and govern pupils. 

(4). They should deal honorably and justly, in all 
things, with associate teachers ; and should labor for the 
good of the school as a whole, as well as for individual 
success. 

4. Grading of Pupils. 

Grading consists {a) in placing pupils in grades and 
classes according to their attainments, and {b) in grouping a 
number of consecutive grades into a Department. 

Grading involves classification, and must be based upon proper examin- 
ation, and regulated by some standard of acquirements. 

The Standard of grading in ordinary cases, must be 
the general average of attainments in all the studies of a 
grade or class. This average should be determined more by 
the daily recitations than by a final examination. 

A fair degree of flexibility must be allowed in any standard, especially 
where a considerable proportion of the pupils can be in school but a 
limited time. 

Special circumstances and the comparative practical value of particular 
studies should be considered. 

5. Examinations for Grading. 

These must necessarily be made by the Superintendent, 
or under hi§ oversight and direction. 



76 OUTLINES OF 

Teachers will render such aid as he requires. ( Other 
suggestions will be found under the special topic of 
" Examinations.") 

G. Records and Reports. 

{a). Necessarily more extensive and complex than in 
district schools. 

{d). Prescribed by the Board or Superintendent, and 
blanks prepared and explained. 

[c). Should show, at least, the (i) Attendance, (2) 
General Deportment, and (3) Progress of pupils in 
studies. 

7. Rules in relation to duties of teachers, and pupils, 
and concerning other matters. 

{a). The larger the organization the more numerous 
the rules. 

{i>). General and most important rules made by the 
Board. 

{c). Minor rules made, from time to time, by the 
Superintendent. 

(d). Rules should allow proper room for the individ- 
uality of teachers in their special classes and work. 

2. School GoYernment. 

The government of a school is the control and direction 
of its pupils, and all of its internal affairs, by some legitimate 
authority. 

{A). General Principles. 

(a). The ends of school government are 

(i). To maintain order, and secure obedience 
on the part of pupils. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 77 

{2). To teach respect for law and authority. 
(3). To create in pupils the habit of self-gov- 
ernment. 
{/'). School government, to secure these ends, must 
have 

(i). Right principles and rules of administration. 
(2). An efficient executive head. 
((■). Young children must be governed, for the most 
part, by specific rules ; older pupils should be governed, 
and should govern themselves, by general principles. 

{J). The administration of all human governments 
is based upon one of two princii)les : 

(i). The principle of restraining and coercing 
the desire of activity in the governed, or 

(2). The principle of guiding and directing this, 
and allowing large freedom of action. 
{e). The practical problem in school government, as 
in all government, is 

(i). To secure order, and the necessary unity of 
purpose and action, and 

(2). To allow all possible liberty to each 
individual. 

Tlie school must be au organic whole. This is ao absolute 
uecessity. At the same time, the restraint upon individuals 
should be as little as possible. 

(/). Specific rules should be few, and should be such 
as to commend themselves to all right-minded pupils. 

ig). Prohibitions should not be such as to suggest 
and provoke offences. 

It may be assumed that the ordinary rules of propriety and good 
behavior are understood by pupils, and that only such requirements 
and prohibitions are to be made as relate to new and special relations 
and duties. 



78 OUTLINES OF 

{B). Administration of school government. 

lu small schools the maintenance of authority and older depends 
almost entirely upon the jxmoiial power and force of the teacher ; iu 
large schools the organic forces, — the machinery and movements of the 
organization, — are important factors in the government. 

(a). General Suggestions. " It is wiser to prevent 
offences than to punish them;" to avoid collisions than to 
conquer adversaries; renuest rather than command. 

{b). Elements of Personal power in the teacher needed 
in governing. 

(i). Character, — manhood, — womanhood. 

(2). Self-knowledge, self-control, and self-respect. 

(3). Knowledge of human nature, — of the mo- 
tives which influence the will, — respect for pupils. 

(4). Consciousness of power to govern. 

(5). Determination to succeed; force of will. 

(6). Manner, eye, voice, etc. ( Huntington's 
Unconscious Tuition.) 

(7). Tact, — "common sense," — sound judgment. 

(<:). Means of securing obedience without penalties. 

(i)' Proper and sufficient employment ; provision 
for physical activity in Primary schools. 

(2). Good teaching; teaching which commands 
interest and attention. 

(3). Right public sentiment in the school. 

(4). Right public sentiment among the patrons 
of the school. 

(5). An understanding of the the true nature 
of law and obedience. 

(6). Personal regard fo'r the teacher. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION t^ 

(7). Proper appeals to the best emotions, affec- 
tions, and desires (question of rewards, prizes, etc., 
belongs here.) 

(8). Co-operation of school officers, parents, and 
other friends of the school. 

(ii^). Penalties, Punishments. 

(i). The primary purpose of school penalties and 
punishments is not retribution and vengeance. They 
are (c?) for the protection and safety of the school, 
[b) for the restraint and, as far as possible, refor- 
mation of the offender. 

(2). They should bear a natural relation, in 
character and extent, to the offence, as far as this 
is possible. 

(3). They should not be unnecessarily irritating, 
and never degrading. 

(4). To a large extent, they should consist in 
forfeitures and deprivations. ( Suspension or expul- 
sion is an extreme form of this.) 

(5). In exceptional and rare cases, corporal 
punishment. 

The right to inflict such punishment rests only on usage. 
Circumstances, conditions, and limitations are to be very care- 
fully considered. 

(1?). In the administration of a public school the 

teacher is the agent of the school Board, and an officer 

of public law, not acting ''/// loco parentis.'" 

Note.— In connection with this topic, study School Law upon the 
following i)oiuts : 

1. A legally qualified teacher. 

2. Examinations and certificates. 

3. Contracts. 

4. General duties. 

5. Authority, (a) in the school, (&) outside the school. - 



80 OUTLINES OF 



XXIII. 

Suggestions on Teaching Some Studies. 



Teaching Reading. 

1. Reading is {a) the art of acquiring information from 
written or printed composition (reading for one's self ), and 
{/>) of conveying that information to others by the voice (read- 
ing for others). 

2. The work of teaching reading may be divided into {a) 
Elementary or Primary teaching, {/>) Secondary, and (r) 
Advanced teaching. 

3. Primary Teaching. 

(a). Purpose. — To help children in acquiring a written 
and printed vocabulary corresponding to their already 
acquired spoken vocabulary. 

Childreu have, before entering; school, associated objects, acts, 
ciualities, etc., with the spoken signs; they have now simply to add a 
sign addressed to the eye. 

[d). Methods of teaching in common use. 

(i) Alphabetic, (2) Word and Sentence, (3) 
Phonic. 

{c). Laws which should determine the methods to be 
employed: i and 5 of Acquisition; i, 4 and 6 of 
Teaching. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 81 

(c/). Order of work. 

(r). By the use of objects, acts, pictures, etc., 
teach words as wholes, and have pupils copy theni 
on slates or paper. 

Books may be used from the beginning, but all new words 
should be printed or written upon the blackboard. The names 
of letters may be taught, and oral spelling also from the first. 
Words may be combined into short sentences immediately. 

(2). Teach gradually and very carefully the 
sounds of the letters by analyzing simple words 
(Phonic work). 

Begin with the short sounds of the vowels and teach, one by 
one, the diacritical marks. 

(3). Teach, also gradually, how to learn and to 

form new words by the Phonic method. 

In this way all the advantages of both the word and phonic 
methods are secured. 

(4). Have pupils copy on slates all words and 
sentences learned, and also reproduce them from 
memory. 

Spelling is thus learned by the most natural and most 
effectual method. Oral spelling should also be constantly 
practiced. 

Teaching in the second stage. 

{a). Purposes : — 

(1). To aid pupils in enlarging their written and printed 
vocabulary. 

(2). To begin the classification of letters and sounds. 

(3). To teach pupils how to acquire information from books:— 
the art of reading for one's self. 

(4). To tcMch practically the art of reading for others;— vocal 
expression proper for children. 

(5). To give constant practice in writing correct sentences; 
short stories from dictation or memory, etc. 

(/'). Laws for special reference ;— 2, 3 and 6 of Acqui- 
sition ; 2, 3 and 5 of Teaching. 



82 OUTLINES OF 

(c). Order of work, etc. 

(i). Teach carefully the pronunciation and 
meaning of all new words. 

(2). Continue teaching the sounds of letters and 
diacritical marks. 

(3). Exercise great care in selecting and assign- 
ing lessons. 

The use of capital letters, of marks of punctuation, and of 
all other marks used in the reading books, should be taught as 
they occur in the lessons. 

(4). Give much practice in right articulation, 
emphasis, inflection, etc. ; teach very few 7-ules. 

5. Advanced Teaching. 

{a). Purposes: — 

(i). To teach how to analyze and study critically 
a reading exercise. 

(2). To teach the art of expression, and the 
most obvious rules for good reading. 

(3). To complete the classification of letters and 
sounds. 
{b). The general laws of teaching will suggest meth- 
ods of working adapted to this period. 

The proper teaching of -Reading necessarily involves, during the 
first two years of school life, the teaching of spelling, writing, and 
"language lessons." 



13. • 

Spelling. 

1. Spelling is naming or writing the letters and other 
marks used in forming printed words, in riglit order. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 06 

2. Purposes in teaching. 

{a). To enable pupils to write words correctly, and 
(d) To determine by the eye whether the words of a 
written or printed composition are correctly spelled. 

3. Two things to be considered. 

(a) The lessons; {/>) methods of teaching. 

4. The lessons should be composed of words in most 
common use. These will be found in the 

{a). Pupil's spoken vocabulary. 
{l>). Reading and other text-books. 
(<:). Spellers and Dictionary. 
{d). Newspapers and Periodicals, 
(r). Selected dictation exercises. 

5. Methods of teaching. 

{a) Oral, and (^) written. 

Youug children, of necessity, must spell orally, to a considerable 
extent, in order to get sufficient practice. Spelliuo; should be, more 
and more, by writing as pupils become able to write rapidly and 
legibly. 

Spelling by writing should be so conducted as not to impose 
unnecessary labor upon teachers. 

6. Suggestions, etc. 

{a). The spelling of the first years should be mostly 
in connection with lessons in reading, words and sen- 
tences being first copied, and afterwards reproduced 
from memory. 

(/'). All written school exercises should be lessons 
in spelling. 

(r). The laws of association should be observed in 
teaching spelling. , 

{d). The meaning of words is best taught in connec- 



8-4 OUTLINES OF 

{e). A lew rules should be taught inductively to 
advanced pupils. 

(/). A habit of observing new or unusual words, 
when reading, aids much in learning to spell. 



Geography, 

1. Divisions of work, — 

{a) Primary, {/?) Secondary or Grammar grade, 
[c) Advanced. 

2. Primary work. 

{a). Purposes: — 

(i). Cultivation of the observing faculties, and 
of the power of expression. 

(2). Teaching of position, direction, distance, 
etc., and the terms used to designate these. 

(3). Instruction in drawing simple outline maps. 

(4). Teaching of natural divisions of land and 
water, and their names. 

(5). Outlines of the world appropriate to the age, 
and details of immediate surroundings. 

{!)). Order and method of work. 

(i). Begin with the school room, house and sur- 
roundings. Make teaching objective and concrete. 

(2). Draw outlines of tables, desks, school-room, 
yard, streets, etc. 

(3). Teacli outlines by means of globe and out- 
line maps. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION 85 

{4). In detail work, associate persons, events, 

anecdotes, productions, industries, etc., with places. 

The work of the first year should be mostly oral. The 

Primary text-book should afford matter for conversation rather 

than for the exercise of mere verbal memory. 

Secondary or Grammar grade work. 

{a). Purposes: — 

(i). To teach a general outline of the subject. 

(2). To teach details, beginning at home; less 
and less of minute detail as the work goes farther 
away from home. 

(3). To teach something of explorations, travels, 
commerce, history, biography, etc., in connection 
with places. 

(/'). Order and method of work. 

(i). Teach globe and outline maps thoroughly. 

(2). In teaching details, group and associate by 
the laws of association and suggestion; that is, by 
natural physical conditions, by lines of travel, by 
commercial and other relations, etc., etc. 

(3). Make large use of books of exploration, 
travel, history, biography, etc. 

(4). As far as possible, in all countries, select a 
fev\^ geographical, historical and commercial centers, 
and around these group all other points and objects 
of study. 

(5). Require frequent reproduction by pupils, 
orally and in writing, of associated instruction. 

Advanced work. 

{a). Purposes : — 

(i). To review the general subject. 



86 OUTLINES OF 

(2). To teach the higher generalizations of 
Physical geography. 

(3). To teach historical geography, both Physi- 
cal and Civil. 
{l>). Order and method are sufficiently indicated by 
the laws of Teaching. 

5. Guiding Lazvs. 
Taws of Teaching, i to 5, page 54; Laws of Retention 
and Reproduction, Prima-ry, i to 3, page 15. 



13. 

History. 

BY MISS J. A. KING. 

1. Divisions of work. 

(rt) Primary, (//) Secondary or Grammar grade, 
{c) Advanced. 

2. Purposes of work. 
• {a). Primary. 

(i). To awaken an interest in historical studies. 

(2). To add to the vocabulary, and cultivate 
expression. 

(3). To secure familiarity with suitable historical 
facts. 
{b). Grammar or Secondary. 

(i). Same as primary work, 

(2). To form clear conceptions of related events 
in any epoch. 

(3). To develop details in their external or 
chronological sequence. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. H7 

(<:). Advanced. 

(i). To secure familiarity with historical liter- 
ature. 

(2). To cultivate the power to select and dis- 
criminate. 

(3). To discover the development of principles 
as shown in the causes and relations of events. 

3. General order of work. 

{a) Teach, {/) Reproduce, (r) Combine, (d) Compare, 
(^) Use. 

4. Special directions for work. 
(a). Primary. 

(i). Teach by picture, story, conversation and 
reading from primary history. 

(2). Reproduce by written exercise with occa- 
sional oral recitation. 

(3). Combine the parts of continuous events, 
and events of brief periods. 
(d). Grammar. 

(i). Give a whole period by synoptic tables. 
(2). Read the period, or epoch, from suitable 
text-book. 

(3). Develop lines of events, as 
Civil and military. 
National industries. 
Historical geography. 
(c). Advanced. 

(i). Pursue topical reading. 

(2). Develop course of events, as 

Constitution, government, and laws. 



88 OUTLINES OF 

Religion, society, and customs. 
Science and fine arts. 
Literature, etc. 
(3). Require results of research in written 
themes. 

5. Guiding Laws, i, 2, 3 and 6 of Teaching; Pages 54-55- 



E. 

Language and Grammar. 

BY PROF. AUSTIN GEOKGE. 

Language Lessons. 

((?). Purpose. — To teach and train children to speak 
and write correctly. 

This requires attention to 

(i). Enlargement of the vocabulary, — acquisition 
of words, including meaning, spelling, pronunciation. 
(2). Use of words combined in sentences to 
express ideas. 

(3). Practice in manuscript work, — paragraphing, 
capitalization, punctuation, etc. 

{b). Methods and Means of work. 

(i). Real objects, — questions by teacher on 
names, parts, properties, etc. ; answers by pupils 
in correct sentences, both orally and in writing. 

(2). Pictures, — 'treatment same as with objects. 

(3). Stories read or told by teacher; oral and 
written reproduction by pupils. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 89 

(4). Memorizing choice selections, and conver- 
sation about tiiese. 

(5). Correction of local inaccuracies. 

An intelligent plan is necessary under each head; questions 
should be pre-arranged. 

2. Word Studies. 

(a). As to form, — abbreviations, contractions, etc. 

(6). As to meaning, — compound words, prefixes, suf- 
fixes, derivations, etc. 

ic). Diacritical marks, — preparing for the under- 
standing and use of the dictionary. 

It should be kept constantly in mind that children learn to speak 
by imitation; that ability to speak comes by speaking; ability to write 
by writing; and that use (good or bad) crystalizes into fixed habits. 

3. Guiding Laws. 

Laws of Acquisition, i and 6, Pages 52 and 53. 
Lav/s of Teaching, i, 5 and 6, Pages 54 and 55. 
Purposes of Childhood, No. 2, Page 56. 
Purposes of Youth, Nos. i and 2, Pages 5" and 58. 

4. Technical Grammar. 

(a). Purposes: — 

(i). To secure a knowledge of the mechanism of 
the language, and a comprehension of the principles 
which govern forms and agreements. 

(2). To secure readiness and accuracy in the 
interpretation of language. 

(3). To acquire facility in the correct use of 
language, both in speech and in writing. 



90 OUTLINES OF 

ip). Methods of work. — Begin with the sentence as a 
whole; then consider its parts and their offices: 

f i). Idea of subject and predicate; complement, 
— object and attribute; parts of speech, and the 

classification of words into nouns, verbs, etc.; 
adjuncts, — of single words, of several words. 

(2). Consideration of sentences accordmg to 
nature and use; as declarative, interrogative, 
exclamative, imperative. 

(3). Consideration according to structure; as 
simple, compound, complex. 

(r). Phrases and Clauses. 

(i). Structure and office. 

(2). Equivalency, — interchange of words, phrases 
and clauses. 

(^/). Etymology. 

(i). Sub-classification of parts of speech. 
(2). Inflection of nouns, verbs, etc. 
(3). Connectives; — [a) introducing phrases; (Ji) 
introducing clauses; (/•) joining like constructions. 

5. Grammatical Analysis is the classification of a 
sentence, and the naming of the offices and relations of its 
members and their adjuncts. 

6. Parsing is the complete classification of a word (or 
inseparable phrase), and an orderly naming of all that is 
grammatically of interest to it. 

In analysis, diagrams are a condensed and useful method of represent- 
ing the work to the eye. Parsing may be concisely written in tabular form. 

7. Guiding Laws. — The general laws of advanced Teach- 
ing and the laws of elaboration. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 91 

F. 

Arithmetic. 

BY PROF. C. F. R. BELLOWS. 

1 . Divisions of the work. 

(a) Primar)', (b) Practical or Secondary, (c) Higher. 
These divisions correspond more or less closely to the 
periods, respectively, of Childhood, Youth and Maturity. 
They distinguish, as it were, the aspects presented by the 
study and teaching of Arithmetic as viewed from the 
standpoint of the separate periods of development. 

2. Primary Arithmetic. 

(a). Scope of the work. 

((). Notation and reading of numbers to 100. 

(2). The Tables of Addition, Subtraction, Multi- 
plication and Division. Exercises applying knowl- 
edge of the Tables. 

(t,). Tlie signification and notation of fractions 
to tenths, and exercises upon the same. 

(4). The Table of U. S. Money and some of 
the most common Tables of Weight and Measure. 

(d). Form of work. 

The work is characterized chiefly by the large use 
which is made of objects as a concrete form of present- 
ing numbers. Thus, 

(i). Collections of things (counters) are em- 
ployed as a form of expressing numbers. 

(2). The Tables of Addition etc. are formed by 
the children with use of counters. 



92 OUTLINES OF 

(3). The idea of the fraction is developed by the 
use of objects and numbers which the children are 
led to divide. 

(4). The relations of the common units of meas- 
ure and weight are found in the experience of the 
children in measuring and weighing. 

(c). Guiding Principles. 

(i). The interest of the child in bodily activities. 
(Laws of Teaching, No. i, Page 54.) 

(2). The relation of concrete and abstract ideas. 
(Laws of Acquisition, No. 4, Page 52.) 

(3). The relation of ideas and symbols. ( Laws 
of Memory, No. 4, Page 16.) 

(^/). Faculties addressed. 

(i). The Senses and Presentative powers. 

(2). The Representative powers in their incipient 
activity (See Pages 44-46 and 56-7.) 

Remark. — While it is true that primary work in Arithmetic 
is addressed chiefly to the Presentative faculties, still the comicp; 
activity of the Representative faculties should be properly 
anticipated. 

3. Practical Arithmetic. 

{a). Scope of the work. 

(i). The Fundamental Rules. 

(2). Factoring, Cancellation, etc. 

(3). Fractions, — (i) Common, (2) Decimal. 

(4). Weights and Measures. 

(5). Ratio and Proportion. 

(6). Involution and Evolution. 

(7). Percentage. 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 98 

(/'). Form of the work. 

If use of objects characterizes the work of Primary 
Arithmetic, the use of figures is no less the prominent 
feature of Practical Arithmetic. 

(c). Guiding Principles. 

(r). The interest of the pupil in the acquisition 
of practical knowledge. 

(2). 'J1ie activity of the Representative powers, 
as appealed to in the symbolism of number, 
operation and relation. ( See Pages 47 and 57-8.) 
{</). Faculties addressed. 

(i). The Presentative powers. 

(3). The Representative powers. 

(3). The Elaborative powers (in a degree). 
(<:■)■ Accordingly considerable prominence is given, 

(i). To the development of full and clear ideas 
of things. 

(2). To the statement of definitions. 

(3). To forms of solution and other written 
work. 

(4). To the description of operations ; statement 
of rules, etc. 

(5). To explanations or the rationale of opera- 
tions. 

Remark.— The largeness of the place given to explanations, 
properly so-called, and to logical analysis of problems should be 
determined by the degree of activity of the reasoning powers of 
the pupil. 

Higher Arithmetic. 

[a). Scope of the work.— Arithmetic as a system 
of knowledge — a Science. 



94 OUTLINES OF 

The work is characterized, 

(i). By its abstract nature. 

(2). By the large use made of the literal 
notation. 

(3). By the ends had in view, which are, 

(a). The investigation and demonstration 
of principles and rules. 

(^). The development of a comprehensive 
and general view of Arithmetic. 

(r). The consideration of the various topics 
or divisions of Arithmetic in their relationships 
to each other as members of a system of 
knowledge. 

[d). Guiding Principles. 

(i). The interest of the pupil in the perception 
and pursuit of general truths. 

(2). Inclination of the mind toward a scientific 
arraiigement of knowledge. (See Pages 59-60.) 
(3). The relation of Analysis and Synthesis. 
{c). Faculties addressed. 

(i). The Presentative powers. 
(2)' The Reproductive and Representative 
powers. 

(3). The Elaborative powers (pre-eminently). 
{d). Forms of mental activity. 

(i). Abstraction. (2). Generalization. 

(3). Classification. (4). Scientific Imagination. 

(5). Reasoning. 

(See Pages 19-23.) 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 95 

INDEX. 



( The fu) lives denote pages. ) 

Abstraction, - - - - - - - - 20, 23. 

Acquisition, Faculties of, - - - - - - - 9. 

" Laws of, - - - - - - - - 52. 

Affections, - - - - - - - - - 29, 30. 

Analysis, --------- 23. 

Appetites, --------- 26, 27. 

Arithmetic, Teaching of, - - - - - - - 91. 

Art, ----- 3. 

Art of Teaching, ---..-.. 6. 

Association, Laws of ------- 15. 

Attention, defined, - - - - - - - -16. 

" Securing, ------- 61. 

B-'autiful, Emotions of ------- 31. 

Biard, School, - - - - - - - - 70, 73. 

Capacit}', defined, ...-.--. g. 
Child, The, 4, 9. 

Childhood, Purposes of, etc., - - - - - - 55. 

Choice, - - - - - - - - - 35. 

Classification, --------- 23. 

Comparison, - - - - - - - - 19. 

Conception, ---------20. 

Concepts, ---------13. 

Consciousness, - - - - - - - - - 8. 

Conscience, ---------41. 

Desires, ----------28. 

Development, Laws of, ------- 44. 

" Moral, - - - . . - - 65, 

District Schools, -------- 70. 

Education as a Work, etc., - - - . - - - - 4. 

" " " Science, -----.. 5. 

" " an Art, -------- C. 

" , First Step in, ------ 10. 

" , Second Step in, - - - - - - - 10. 

" , Third Step in, ------ 14. 

" , Fourth Step in, - - - . - - - - is. 

Elahoratlvft Faculties, ------- 19. 

Elaboration, Laws of, ------- 53. 



9') 

Emotions, 

Evidence, Laws of. 

Examinations, 

Faculty, defined, . 

Faculties, Acquisitive, 

" , Representative, etc 
" , Elaborative, 
" , Intellectual, 
" , Moral, 

Generalization, 
Geography, Teaching of. 
Grading, 
Graded Schools, 
Grammar, Teaching of. 

History, Teaching of, . 
Hope, 

Ideas, Primary, . 

Imagination, 

Intuition, 

Intuitive ideas, etc., . 



Judgment, 

" , Moral, 

Knowledge, real, 
, first. 
" , second, 

Language, Teaching of. 
Laws of Development, 
" *' Acquisition, 
" " Retention, etc. 
" " Elaboration, 
" " Teaching, 

Man, 

Memoi-y, 

Methods, etc.. 

Methods of Study, 

Motives, 

Moral Nature, . 
" Faculties, 
" Feelings, . 
" Development, 



Nervous System, etc., 

Officers, School, 
Object Teacliiiiir, 
Objective " 
Oral 

Passions, etc., 
Perception, 
Percept, 
Penalties, etc., 
Periods of School Life, 
Personal power, etc., 
Practice, 

Presentation, Laws of, 
Principles of Government 
Purposes of Education, in Childhood, 
" Youth, 
" " " " " Maturity, 



Questioning, Art of, 

Reading, Teaching of. 
Reason, 
Reasoning, 
Records, etc., 
Relation of faculties, 
Repetition, 
Reports, etc., 
Representation, real, 

" , ideal, 

Representative Faculties, 
Reproductive " 

Reproduction, Laws of 
Results of Education, 
Retention, 
Rules, . 

Schools, 

School Life, Periods of 

Schools, District, 
" , Graded, 

School Management, . 
" Organization, 
'• Government, . 

Science, 



98 



Sensation, 

Sensibilities, 

Soul, 

Spelling, Teaching of 

Sublime, The, 

Suggestion, Laws of, 

Summary of Acquisitive Faculties, 

" " Representative Faculties, 

" " Elaborative Faculties, 

" General, 

" of Sensibilities, 

" of Moral Nature, 

Superintendent, 
Syllogism, 

Teacher, duties, etc.. 
Teaching, Laws of, 
Oral, 

" Object, 

" Objective, 

Theory, 
Training, 
Truths, Primary, 

Will, The, . 
Work of Education, 



9. 

, 2(5. 
6-8. 

82. 

33. 

15. 

12. 

18. 

23. 

24. 

33. 

43. 

74. 

21. 

~i. 
54. 
66. 
67. 



51. 
. 11. 

35, 36. 



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# 



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